Jump to content

Neurophysiology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Neurophysiologyis a branch ofphysiologyandneurosciencethat studies nervous system function rather than nervous system architecture.[1]This area aids in the diagnosis and monitoring of neurological diseases. Historically, it has been dominated byelectrophysiology—the electrical recording of neural activity ranging from the molar (the electroencephalogram, EEG) to the cellular (intracellular recording of the properties of single neurons), such aspatch clamp,voltage clamp,extracellularsingle-unit recordingand recording oflocal field potentials.However, since the neuron is an electrochemical machine, it is difficult to isolate electrical events from the metabolic and molecular processes that cause them. Thus, neurophysiologists currently utilise tools from chemistry (calcium imaging), physics (functional magnetic resonance imaging,fMRI), and molecular biology (site directed mutations) to examine brain activity.[2]

The word originates from theGreekwordνεῦρονmeaning "nerve" andphysiologymeaning knowledge about the function ofliving systems(φύσις meaning "nature" and -λογία meaning "knowledge" ).

History[edit]

Neurophysiology has been a subject of study since as early as 4,000 B.C.

In the early B.C. years, most studies were of different natural sedatives like alcohol and poppy plants. In 1700 B.C., theEdwin Smithsurgicalpapyruswas written. This papyrus was crucial in understanding how theancient Egyptiansunderstood thenervous system.This papyrus looked at different case studies about injuries to different parts of the body, most notably thehead.Beginning around 460 B.C.,Hippocratesbegan to studyepilepsy,and theorized that it had its origins in the brain. Hippocrates also theorized that the brain was involved in sensation, and that it was where intelligence was derived from. Hippocrates, as well as mostancient Greeks,believed that relaxation and astressfree environment was crucial in helping treatneurological disorders.In 280 B.C.,ErasistratusofChiostheorized that there were divisions in vestibular processing in the brain, as well as deducing from observation that sensation was located there.

In 177Galentheorized that human thought occurred in the brain, as opposed to the heart asAristotlehad theorized. Theoptic chiasm,which is crucial to the visual system, was discovered around 100 C.E. by Marinus.c. 1000,Al-Zahrawi,living inIberia,began to write about different surgical treatments for neurological disorders. In 1216, the firstanatomytextbook in Europe, which included a description of the brain, was written byMondino de Luzzi.In 1402,St Mary of Bethlehem Hospital(later known asBedlamin Britain) was the first hospital used exclusively for the mentally ill.

In 1504,Leonardo da Vincicontinued his study of the human body with a wax cast of the humanventricle system.In 1536,Nicolo Massadescribed the effects of different diseases, such assyphilison the nervous system. He also noticed that the ventricular cavities were filled withcerebrospinal fluid.In 1542, the term physiology was used for the first time by a French physician namedJean Fernel,to explain bodily function in relation to the brain. In 1543,Andreas VesaliuswroteDe humani corporis fabrica,which revolutionized the study of anatomy. In this book, he described the pineal gland and what he believed the function was, and was able to draw the corpus striatum which is made up of the basal ganglia and the internal capsule. In 1549,Jason PratensispublishedDe Cerebri Morbis.This book was devoted to neurological diseases, and discussed symptoms, as well as ideas from Galen and other Greek, Roman and Arabic authors. It also looked into the anatomy and specific functions of different areas. In 1550,Andreas Vesaliusworked on a case ofhydrocephalus,or fluid filling the brain. In the same year,Bartolomeo Eustachistudied theoptic nerve,mainly focusing on its origin in the brain. In 1564,Giulio Cesare Aranziodiscovered thehippocampus,naming it such due to its shape resemblance to asea horse.

In 1621,Robert BurtonpublishedThe Anatomy of Melancholy,which looked at the loss of important characters in one's life as leading to depression.[3]In 1649,René Descartesstudied thepineal gland.He mistakenly believed that it was the "soul" of the brain, and believed it was where thoughts formed. In 1658,Johann Jakob Wepferstudied a patient in which he believed that a brokenblood vesselhad causedapoplexy,or astroke.

In 1749,David HartleypublishedObservations on Man,which focused on frame (neurology), duty (moral psychology) and expectations (spirituality) and how these integrated within one another. This text was also the first to use the English termpsychology.In 1752, theSociety of Friendscreated an asylum inPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania. The asylum intended to give not only medical treatment to those mentally ill, but also provide with caretakers and comfortable living conditions. In 1755,Jean-Baptiste Le Roybegan usingelectroconvulsive therapyfor the mentally ill, a treatment still used today in specific cases. In 1760,Arne-Charlesstudied how different lesions in thecerebellumcould affect motor movements. In 1776,Vincenzo Malacarne[it]studied the cerebellum intensely, and published a book solely based on its function and appearance.

In 1784,Félix Vicq-d'Azyr,discovered a black colored structure in themidbrain.[4]In 1791Samuel Thomas von Sömmerringalluded to this structure, calling it thesubstantia nigra.[5]In the same year,Luigi Galvanidescribed the role of electricity in nerves of dissected frogs. In 1808,Franz Joseph Gallstudied and published work onphrenology.Phrenology was the faulty science of looking at head shape to determine different aspects of personality and brain function. In 1811,Julien Jean César Legalloisstudied respiration in animal dissection and lesions and found the center of respiration in themedulla oblongata.In the same year,Charles Bellfinished work on what would later become known as theBell–Magendie law,which compared functional differences between dorsal and ventral roots of thespinal cord.In 1822,Karl Friedrich Burdachdistinguished between the lateral and medial geniculate bodies, as well as named thecingulate gyrus.In 1824,F. Magendiestudied and produced the first evidence of the cerebellum's role inequilibrationto complete theBell–Magendie law.In 1838,Theodor Schwannbegan studying white and grey matter in the brain, and discovered themyelin sheath.These cells, which cover the axons of the neurons in the brain, are named Schwann cells after him. In 1843Carlo MatteucciandEmil du Bois-Reymonddemonstrated that nerves transmit signals electrically. In 1848,Phineas Gage,the classical neurophysiology patient, had his brain pierced by an iron tamping rod in a blasting accident. He became an excellent case study in the connection between the prefrontal cortex and behavior, decision making and consequences. In 1849,Hermann von Helmholtzstudied the speed offrognerve impulses while studyingelectricityin the body.

While these are not all the developments in neurophysiology before 1849, these developments were significant to the study of the brain and body.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Luhmann HJ (2013)."Neurophysiology".Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions.Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions. pp. 1497–1500.doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_779.ISBN978-1-4020-8264-1.
  2. ^Teyler, T. J. (2001-01-01),"In Vitro Neurophysiology",in Smelser, Neil J.; Baltes, Paul B. (eds.),International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences,Oxford: Pergamon, pp. 7251–7254,ISBN978-0-08-043076-8,retrieved2022-04-03
  3. ^Horwitz, Allan V.; Wakefield, Jerome C.; Lorenzo-Luaces, Lorenzo (2016-04-07)."History of Depression".In DeRubeis, Robert J.; Strunk, Daniel R. (eds.).The Oxford Handbook of Mood Disorders.Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. pp. 10–23.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199973965.013.2.ISBN978-0-19-997396-5.
  4. ^Tubbs RS, Loukas M, Shoja MM, Mortazavi MM, Cohen-Gadol AA (July 2011)."Félix Vicq d'Azyr (1746-1794): early founder of neuroanatomy and royal French physician".Childs Nerv Syst.27(7): 1031–4.doi:10.1007/s00381-011-1424-y.PMID21445631.
  5. ^Swanson, LW. Neuroanatomical terminology: a lexicon of classical origins and historical foundations. Oxford University Press, 2014. EnglandISBN9780195340624

Sources[edit]

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neurophysiology&oldid=1221136219"