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Neutral country

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"Neutral nation" redirects here. For the North American indigenous group, seeNeutral Nation.

Aneutral countryis astatethat is neutral towardsbelligerentsin a specificwaror holds itself as permanently neutral in all future conflicts (including avoiding entering intomilitary alliancessuch asNATO,CSTOor theSCO). As a type ofnon-combatantstatus, nationals of neutral countries enjoy protection under thelaw of warfrom belligerent actions to a greater extent than other non-combatants such as enemyciviliansandprisoners of war.Different countries interpret their neutrality differently:[1]some, such asCosta Ricahavedemilitarized,whileSwitzerlandholds to "armed neutrality", to deter aggression with a sizeable military, while barring itself from foreign deployment.

Not all neutral countries avoid any foreign deployment or alliances, asAustriaandIrelandhave activeUN peacekeeping forcesand a political alliance within theEuropean Union.Sweden's traditional policy was not to participate in military alliances, with the intention of staying neutral in thecase of war.Immediately beforeWorld War II,theNordic countriesstated their neutrality, but Sweden changed its position to that ofnon-belligerentat the start of theWinter War.Sweden would uphold its policy of neutrality until the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.During theCold War,formerYugoslaviaclaimed military and ideological neutrality from both theWesternandEastern Bloc,becoming a co-founder of theNon-Aligned Movement.

There have been considerable changes to the interpretation of neutral conduct over the past centuries.[2]

Terminology[edit]

  • Aneutral countryin a particularwar,is asovereign statewhich refrains from joining either side of the conflict and adheres to the principle of theLaw of Neutralityunderinternational law.Although countries have historically often declared themselves as neutral at the outbreak of war, there is no obligation for them to do so.[3]The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in sections 5[4]and 13[5]of theHague Convention of 1907.
  • Apermanently neutral poweris a sovereign state which is bound byinternational treaty,or by its own declaration, to be neutral towards the belligerents of all future wars. An example of a permanently neutral power is Switzerland. The concept of neutrality in war is narrowly defined and puts specific constraints on the neutral party in return for the internationally recognized right to remain neutral.
  • Neutralismor a "neutralist policy" is aforeign policyposition wherein a state intends to remain neutral in future wars. A sovereign state that reserves the right to become a belligerent if attacked by a party to the war is in a condition ofarmed neutrality.
  • Anon-belligerentstate is one that indirectly participates in a war by politically or materially helping one side of the conflict and thus not participating militarily. For example, it may allow its territory to be used for the war effort. Contrary to neutrality, this term is not defined underinternational law.

Rights and responsibilities of a neutral power[edit]

Belligerentsmay not invade neutral territory,[6]and a neutral power's resisting any such attempt does not compromise its neutrality.[7]

A neutral power mustinternbelligerent troops who reach its territory,[8]but not escapedprisoners of war.[9]Belligerent armies may not recruit neutral citizens,[10]but they may go abroad to enlist.[11]Belligerent armies' personnel andmaterielmay not be transported across neutral territory,[12]but the wounded may be.[13]A neutral power may supply communication facilities to belligerents,[14]but not war materiel,[15]although it need not prevent export of such materiel.[16]

Belligerentnavalvessels may use neutral ports for a maximum of 24 hours, though neutrals may impose different restrictions.[17]Exceptions are to make repairs—only the minimum necessary to put back to sea[18]—or if an opposing belligerent's vessel is already in port, in which case it must have a 24-hour head start.[19]Aprizeship captured by a belligerent in theterritorial watersof a neutral power must be surrendered by the belligerent to the neutral, which must intern its crew.[20]

Recognition and codification[edit]

Neutrality has been recognised in different ways, and sometimes involves a formal guarantor. For example, Switzerland and Belgium's neutrality was recognized by the signatories of theCongress of Vienna,[21]Austria has its neutrality guaranteed by its four former occupying powers, and Finland by the Soviet Union during theCold War.The form of recognition varies, often by bilateral treaty (Finland), multilateral treaty (Austria) or a UN declaration (Turkmenistan). These treaties can in some ways be forced on a country (Austria's neutrality was insisted upon by the Soviet Union) but in other cases it is an active policy of the country concerned to respond to a geopolitical situation (Ireland in the Second World War).[22]

For the country concerned, the policy is usually codified beyond the treaty itself. Austria and Japan codify their neutrality in their constitutions, but they do so with different levels of detail. Some details of neutrality are left to be interpreted by the government while others are explicitly stated; for example, Austria may not host any foreign bases, and Japan cannot participate in foreign wars. Yet Sweden, lacking formal codification, was more flexible during the Second World War in allowing troops to pass through its territory.[22]

Armed neutrality[edit]

Switzerland is a prominent example of a country outside of any military alliance, but maintaining a strong deterrent force.

Armed neutrality is the posture of a state or group of states that has no alliance with either side of a war but asserts that it will defend itself against resulting incursions from any party,[23]making the benefit to a belligerent of entering the country by force not worth the cost.[citation needed]

This may include:

  • Military preparedness without commitment, especially as the expressed policy of a neutral nation in wartime, and the readiness to counter with force an invasion of rights by anybelligerentpower.[24]
  • Armed neutrality is a term used in international politics for the attitude of a state or group of states that makes no alliance with either side in a war. It is the condition of aneutralpower during a war to hold itself ready to resist by force, any aggression of either belligerent.[25]
  • Armed neutrality makes a seemingly-neutral state take up arms for protection to maintain its neutrality.

The term derives from the historic maritime neutrality of theFirst League of Armed Neutralityof theNordic countriesand Russia under the leadership ofCatherine the Great,which was invented in the late 18th century but has since been used only to refer to countries' neutralities.[26]Sweden and Switzerland are independently of each other famed for their armed neutralities, which they maintained throughout bothWorld War IandWorld War II.[27]The Swiss and the Swedes each have a long history of neutrality: they have not been in a state of war internationally since 1815 and 1814, respectively. Switzerland continues to pursue, however, an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world.[28]According toEdwin Reischauer,"To be neutral you must be ready to be highly militarized, like Switzerland or Sweden."[29]

In contrast, some neutral states may heavily reduce their military and use it for the express purpose of home defense and the maintenance of their neutrality, while other neutral states mayabandon military poweraltogether (examples of states doing this includeLiechtenstein). However, the lack of a military does not always result in neutrality: Countries such asCosta RicaandIcelandreplaced their standing army with a military guarantee from a stronger power or participation in amutual defense pact(underTIARandNATOrespectively).

Leagues of armed neutrality[edit]

  • TheFirst League of Armed Neutralitywas an alliance of minornavalpowers organized in 1780 byCatherine II of Russiato protect neutral shipping during theAmerican Revolutionary War.[30]The establishment of the First League of Armed Neutrality was viewed by Americans as a mark of Russian friendship and sympathy. This league had a lasting impact of Russian-American relations and the relations of those two powers and Britain. It was also the basis forinternational maritime law,which is still in effect.[31]In the field of political science, this is the first historical example of armed neutrality, however, scholars like Carl Kulsrud argue that the concept of armed neutrality was introduced even earlier. Within 90 years before the First League of Armed Neutrality was established, neutral powers had joined forces no less than three times. As early as 1613,LubeckandHollandjoined powers to continue their maritime exploration without the commitment of being involved in wartime struggles on the sea.[32]
  • TheSecond League of Armed Neutralitywas an effort to revive this during theFrench Revolutionary Wars.[33]It was an alliance withDenmark-Norway,Prussia,Sweden andRussia.It occurred during 1800 and 1801. The idea of this second league was to protect neutral shipping from the BritishRoyal Navy.However, Britain took this as the alliance taking up sides with France, and attacked Denmark leading to theBattle of Copenhagen(1801) and the taking of Copenhagen by the British. The alliance was forced to withdraw from the league.
  • A potential Third League of Armed Neutrality was discussed during theAmerican Civil War,but was never realized.[34]

Peacekeeping[edit]

Irish units on UN patrol in theGolan Heights.

For many states, such as Ireland, neutrality does not mean the absence of any foreign interventionism.Peacekeepingmissions for the United Nations are seen as intertwined with it.[35]The Swiss electorate rejected a 1994 proposal to join UN peacekeeping operations. Despite this, 23 Swiss observers and police have been deployed around the world in UN projects.[36]

Points of debate[edit]

Thelegitimacyof whether some states are as neutral as they claim has been questioned in some circles, although this depends largely on a state's interpretation of its form of neutrality.

European Union[edit]

See also:Neutral member states in the European Union

There are three members of theEuropean Unionthat still describe themselves as a neutral country in some form:Austria,Ireland,andMalta.With the development of the EU'sCommon Security and Defence Policy,the extent to which they are, or should be, neutral is debated.

For example, Ireland, which sought guarantees for its neutrality in EU treaties, argues that its neutrality does not mean that Ireland should avoid engagement in international affairs such as peacekeeping operations.[37]

Since the enactment of theLisbon Treaty,EU members are bound byTEU, Article 42.7,which obliges states to assist a fellow member that is the victim of armed aggression. It accords "an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in [other member states'] power" but would "not prejudice the specific character of the security and defense policy of certain Member States" (neutral policies), allowing members to respond with non-military aid. Ireland'sconstitutionprohibits participating in such a common defence.

With the launch ofPermanent Structured Cooperation(PESCO) in defense at the end of 2017, the EU's activity on military matters has increased. The policy was designed to be inclusive and allows states to opt in or out of specific forms of military cooperation. That has allowed most of the neutral states to participate, but opinions still vary. Some members of the Irish Parliament considered Ireland's joining PESCO as an abandonment of neutrality. It was passed with the government arguing that its opt-in nature allowed Ireland to "join elements of PESCO that were beneficial such as counter-terrorism, cybersecurity and peacekeeping... what we are not going to be doing is buying aircraft carriers and fighter jets". Malta, as of December 2017, is the only neutral state not to participate in PESCO. The Maltese government argued that it was going to wait and see how PESCO develops to see whether it would compromise Maltese neutrality.[38]

Neutrality during World War II[edit]

Main article:Neutral powers during World War II
"Neutrality is a negative word. It does not express what America ought to feel. We are not trying to keep out of trouble; we are trying to preserve the foundations on which peace may be rebuilt.”
—Woodrow Wilson

Many countries made neutrality declarations duringWorld War II.However, of the European states closest to the war, onlyAndorra,Ireland,Portugal,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland(withLiechtenstein), andVatican City(theHoly See) remained neutral to the end.

Their fulfillment to the letter of the rules of neutrality has been questioned: Ireland supplied important secret information to theAllies;for instance, the date ofD-Daywas decided on the basis of incoming Atlanticweather information,some of it supplied by Ireland but kept from Germany. Ireland also secretly allowed Allied aircraft to use theDonegal Corridor,making it possible for British planes to attack German U-boats in the mid-Atlantic. On the other hand, both Axis and Allied pilots who crash landed in Ireland were interned.[39]

Sweden and Switzerland, surrounded by possessions and allies ofNazi Germanysimilarly made concessions to Nazi requests as well as to Allied requests.[40]Sweden was also involved in intelligence operations with the Allies, including listening stations in Sweden and espionage in Germany. Spain offered to join the war on the side of Nazi Germany in 1940, allowed Axis ships and submarines to use its ports, imported war materials for Germany, and sent a Spanishvolunteer combat divisionto aid the Nazi war effort. Portugal officially stayed neutral, but actively supported both the Allies by providing overseas naval bases, and Germany by sellingtungsten.

The United States was initially neutral and bound by theNeutrality Actsof 1936 not to sell war materials to belligerents. Once war broke out,US PresidentFranklin Delano Rooseveltpersuaded Congress to replace the act with theCash and carry programthat allowed the US to provide military aid to the allies, despite opposition from non-interventionist members.[41]The "Cash and carry" program was replaced in March 1941 byLend-Lease,effectively ending the US pretense of neutrality.

Sweden also made concessions to the German Reich during the war to maintain its neutrality, the biggest concession was to let the163rd German Infantry Divisionto be transferred from Norway to Finland by Swedish trains, to aid the Finns in theContinuation War.The decision caused a political "Midsummer Crisis"of 1941, aboutSweden's neutrality.

Equally, Vatican City made various diplomatic concessions to the Axis and Allied powers alike, while still keeping to the rules of theLaw of Neutrality.The Holy See has been criticized—but largely exonerated later—for its silence on moral issues of the war.[42]

List of countries proclaiming to be neutral[edit]

Some countries may occasionally claim to be "neutral" but not comply with the internationally agreed upon definition of neutrality as listed above.[43]

State Period(s) of neutrality Notes
Andorra 1914–present
Austria 1955–present (Declaration of Neutrality)
Main article:Declaration of Neutrality
Costa Rica 1949–present
Ghana 2012–present
Haiti 2017–present
  • Neutral since 2017.[55]
Ireland 1939–present[56]
Main article:Irish neutrality
  • Established a policy of neutralityduring World War II,known asthe Emergencyin Ireland.[22]
    • Despite this policy, Ireland made concessions to theAllied Powersby secretly sharing intelligence and weather reports as well as by repatriating downedRoyal Air Forceairmen.[57][58]
    • It was believed that Ireland would take the German side if theUnited Kingdomattempted to invade Ireland, but would take the British side if invaded byNazi Germany.
    • After the war, it was discovered that Germany had drawn up plans to invade Ireland in order to use the country for launching attacks into the United Kingdom, known asOperation Green.
    • Conversely, had Ireland been invaded, the United Kingdom had drawn up secret plans to invade Ireland in collaboration with the Irish Government to push Germany back out, known asPlan W.[59]
  • Ireland was invited to joinNATObut did not wish to be in an alliance that included the United Kingdom.[22]
  • An EU Member since 1973:military non-aligned,seepoints of debate § European Union.
  • Has provided military aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War.[60][61][62]
Liechtenstein 1868–present
Malta 1980–present
Mexico 1945–present
Moldova 1994–present
Main article:Moldovan neutrality
Monaco 1945–present
Mongolia 2015–present
  • During World War I Mongolia was neutral, but became a belligerent country of World War II. In September 2015, Mongolian PresidentTsakhiagiin Elbegdorjin the 70th UN General Assembly speech suddenly announced that Mongolia will implement the "policy of permanent neutrality," and called on the international community to recognise Mongolian neutrality.[68]
  • Is a member of theNon-Aligned Movement.
Panama 1990–present
Rwanda 2009–present
San Marino 1945–present
Main article:Battle of San Marino
  • Neutral duringWorld War I.
  • Declared its neutrality again in 1939, but following its occupation byNazi Germanyin 1944, the Sammarinese government declared war on the Axis, and joined with British forces in Italy to drive them out.[72]
  • AUnited Nationsmember since 1992.
Serbia 2007–present
Switzerland 1815–present
Main articles:Swiss neutralityandSwitzerland during the World Wars
Further information:Aerial incidents in Switzerland in World War IIandOperation Tannenbaum
  • Self-imposed, permanent, and armed, designed to ensure external security. Because of that, it is the most globally known example of a neutral country.
  • The 1815Congress of Viennare-established Switzerland and its permanent neutrality was guaranteed by France, Prussia, Russia, the United Kingdom and others.[22]
  • Swiss neutrality was so rigorously defended that the country refused even to join the United Nations until 2002.[76]
  • However, the Swiss Armed Forces participated in the U.S.-ledWar in Afghanistan;in what the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation described as the nation's "first military deployment since 1815."[77]During the2003 invasion of Iraq,theUnited Stateswas given permission to use Swiss airspace for surveillance missions overIraq.[78]
  • The Swiss adopted sanctions imposed by theEUagainstRussiain 2022 in response toRussia's invasion of Ukraine.[79]Switzerland has previously only put in place sanctions created by theUnited Nations Security Council.[80]
  • Switzerland has no law that allows it to impose sanctions by itself, it can only adopt sanctions from the UN Security Council, theOECDor theEU.[81]
Turkmenistan 1995–present
Uzbekistan 2012–present
  • In 2012, the law of the Republic of Uzbekistan "On approval of the Concept of foreign policy of the Republic of Uzbekistan" was adopted[83]
  • Is a member of theNon-Aligned Movement.
Vatican City 1929–present
Main article:Vatican City during World War II
  • TheLateran Treatysigned in 1929 with Italy imposed that "ThePopewas pledged to perpetual neutrality in international relations and to abstention from mediation in a controversy unless specifically requested by all parties "thus making Vatican City neutral since then.
  • Is an observer of theNon-Aligned Movement.

List of formerly neutral countries[edit]

State Period(s) of neutrality Notes
Afghanistan 1914–1918 (neutral duringWorld War I)
1939–1945 (neutral duringWorld War II)
Albania 1914–1918 (neutral duringWorld War I)
1968 (attempted neutrality during thePrague Spring)
  • ANATOmember since 2009.
Argentina 1914–1918 (neutral duringWorld War I)
1939–1945 (attempted neutrality duringWorld War II)
Main article:Argentina during World War II
Belgium 1839–1914 (toWorld War I)
1936–1940 (toWorld War II)
Bhutan 1914–1918 (neutral duringWorld War I)
1939–1945 (neutral duringWorld War II)
  • In accordance with theTreaty of Punakhain 1910, Bhutan during World War II to deal with foreign relations powers to the United Kingdom, Bhutan became a de facto wartime neutral country.[85]
  • Is a member of theNon-Aligned Movement.
Cambodia 1955–1970 (toVietnam War)
Chile 1914–1918 (neutral duringWorld War I)
1938–1943 (toWorld War II)
See also:List of wars involving Chile
Colombia 1914–1918 (neutral duringWorld War I)
1933–1943 (toWorld War II)
Main article:Colombia during World War II
See also:List of wars involving Colombia
Denmark 1864–1940 (afterSecond Schleswig WartoWorld War II)
El Salvador 1906–1941 (toWorld War II)
See also:Military dictatorship in El Salvador
Estonia 1938–1939 (toWorld War II)
Ethiopia 1914–1918 (neutral duringWorld War I)
Finland 1935–1939 (toWinter War)
1956–2022 (from return ofPorkkalarental area to2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine)
Main articles:Foreign relations of FinlandandFinland-Russia relations § Finnish NATO membership question
Greenland 1940–1941 (fromFall of DenmarktoWorld War II)
Main article:Greenland in World War II
  • Greenlandexercised its sovereignty after the fall of Denmark in 1940, and declared its neutrality. The United States became a protecting power over the island to ward off Axis invasion, and Greenland later joined the war alongside the U.S. in 1941.
  • ANATOmember since 1949 as a part of Denmark.
Haudenosaunee 1783–1917 (toWorld War I)
  • The confederation never made peace with Germany following the end of World War I.[96]They subsequently issued a second war declaration in 1942 following the attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States joining the war.[97]
Hawaii 1854–1893 (toRevolution of 1893)
Hungary 1956 (attempted neutrality during theHungarian Revolution)
Iceland 1918–1940 (toWorld War II)
Main articles:Allied occupation of Iceland,British invasion of Iceland,Iceland in World War II,andGreenland in World War II
  • TheKingdom of Icelanddeclared its neutrality in 1940 after the fall of Denmark, but was thereafter invaded and occupied by British troops. The government later requested the United States assume the role of its defense for the duration of the war.
  • ANATOmember since 1949.
Iran 1914–1918 (neutral duringWorld War I)
1939–1943 (neutral duringWorld War II)
Main article:Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran
  • Occupied by the Allies in 1941, subsequently declared war on the Axis in 1943.
  • Is a member of theNon-Aligned Movement.
Italy 1914–1915 (toWorld War I)
Laos 1955–1975 (ostensibly neutral throughout theVietnam War)
Latvia 1938–1939 (toWorld War II)
Liberia 1914–1917 (toWorld War I)
1939–1944 (toWorld War II)
Main articles:Liberia in World War IandLiberia in World War II
  • Liberia declared its neutrality in 1914, later joining after pressure from the United States in 1917.
  • Declared its neutrality again in 1939 at the start of the Second World War, but granted Allied forces early access to its territory. Liberia served as one of the Allies' only sources ofrubberduring the war when the plantations of Southeast Asia had been taken over by the Japanese.
Lithuania 1939 (toWorld War II)
Luxembourg 1839–1914 (toWorld War I)
1920–1940 (toWorld War II)
  • Neutral stance since 1839, abolished through itsconstitutionin 1948.
  • ANATOmember since 1949.
  • An EU member since 1957.
Nepal 1858–1914 (toWorld War I)
1918–1939 (toWorld War II)
See also:Nepal in World War II
Netherlands 1839–1940 (toWorld War II)
Norway 1814–1940 (toWorld War II)
See also:The Neutral Ally
  • ANATOmember since 1949.
Orange Free State 1854–1899 (toSecond Boer War)
See also:Boer Republics
  • Conquered by Britain in 1900.
  • Annexed intoSouth Africain 1902.
Portugal 1932–1945 (neutral duringWorld War II)
Main article:Portugal during World War II
  • While neutral throughout World War II, Portugal became non-belligerent towards the Allies, as evidenced in theAzores Base.
  • ANATOmember since 1949.
  • EU member since 1986.
Spain 1914–1918 (neutral duringWorld War I)
1940–1945 (neutral duringWorld War II)
Main articles:Spain during World War IandSpain during World War II
Further information:Meeting at Hendaye,Operation Felix,andWolfram Crisis
  • While neutral throughout World War I and World War II, Spain did lean towards theAxis,as evidenced by theBlue Division.
  • ANATOmember since 1982.
  • EU member since 1986.
Sweden 1814–2022
Main articles:Swedish neutralityandSweden during World War II
Thailand 1940–1941 (toWorld War II)
Main article:Thailand in World War II
  • Following the end of theFranco-Thai War,Thailand officially adopted a neutral position during World War II.
  • Neutrality lasted until theJapanese invasion of Thailandon 8 December 1941, which led to an armistice and military alliance treaty with theJapanese Empirein mid-December 1941.
  • Following liberation by Allied forces, Thailand would remain in the camp of the anti-communist Western military bloc, sending troops to fight in theKoreanandVietnamwars.
Tibet 1939–1945 (neutral duringWorld War II)
Main article:Tibet (1912–1951)
Tonga 1845–1939 (untilWorld War II)
Main articles:Sālote Tupou III,Solomon Islands campaign,andGuadalcanal campaign
  • Tonga retained its sovereignty while a protectorate of the United Kingdom. It declared war on the Axis in 1939 and 1941, respectively. Since the end of the war, Tongan forces have participated minimally in foreign conflicts.
Turkey 1940–1945 (neutral duringWorld War II)
Main article:German–Turkish Treaty of Friendship
Ukraine 1991–2014 (toRusso-Ukrainian War)
  • In its Declaration of Sovereignty (1990), Ukraine declared it had the "intention of becoming a permanently neutral state that does not participate in military blocs and adheres to three nuclear free principles" (art. 9). The 1996 Ukrainian Constitution, based upon the Declaration of Independence of August 24, 1991, contained the basic principles of non-coalition and future neutrality.[103]Such policy of state non-alignment was re-confirmed by law in 2010.[104][failed verification]
  • However, the Ukrainian army participated in the U.S.-ledIraq War.Ukraine provided the third-largest number of forces inIraq.[105]
  • AfterRussian invasion of Ukraine,Ukraine's parliament voted to drop non-aligned status on December 23, 2014.[106]
  • In 2017 Ukraine enshrined the desire to joinNATOin its constitution.[107][108]
United States 1914–1917 (toWorld War I)
1939–1941 (toWorld War II)
Main article:United States non-interventionism
Uruguay 1870–1945 (toWorld War II)
Main article:Uruguay during World War II
  • Sent troops to serve in theTajikistanicivil war under UN supervision.
  • ARio Pactmember since 2020.
Venezuela 1914–1918 (neutral duringWorld War I)
1939–1942 (toWorld War II)
Main article:Venezuela during World War II
Yemen 1939–1945 (neutral duringWorld War II)
  • Under the rule of theMutawakkilite Kingdom,Yemenfollowed an isolationist foreign policy. It had previously formed an alliance with Italy in 1936, yet it remained neutral for the duration of the war.
Yugoslavia 1940–1941 (toWorld War II)
1949–1992 (toYugoslav Wars)
Main article:World War II in Yugoslavia

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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  6. ^Hague Convention, §5 Art.1
  7. ^Hague Convention, §5 Art.10
  8. ^Hague Convention, §5 Art.11
  9. ^Hague Convention, §5 Art.13
  10. ^Hague Convention, §5 Art.4,5
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  12. ^Hague Convention, §5 Art.2
  13. ^Hague Convention, §5 Art.14
  14. ^Hague Convention, §5 Art.8
  15. ^Hague Convention, §13 Art.6
  16. ^Hague Convention, §13 Art.7
  17. ^Hague Convention, §13 Art.12
  18. ^Hague Convention, §13 Art.14
  19. ^Hague Convention, §13 Art.16
  20. ^Hague Convention, §13 Art.3
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Bibliography[edit]

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External links[edit]

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