Commonwealth of Nations

Not to be confused withCommonwealth of Independent StatesorCommonwealth realm.

"The Commonwealth" redirects here. For other uses, seeCommonwealth (disambiguation).

Commonwealth of Nations
Flag Logo
Current member states Partially suspended member state Former member states British Overseas Territories andCrown Dependencies
Headquarters	Marlborough House,London,United Kingdom
Working language	English
Type	Voluntary association
Member states	56 states Antigua and Barbuda Australia Bahamas Bangladesh Barbados Belize Botswana Brunei Cameroon Canada Cyprus Dominica Eswatini Fiji Gabon Gambia Ghana Grenada Guyana India Jamaica Kenya Kiribati Lesotho Malawi Malaysia Maldives Malta Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Nauru New Zealand Nigeria Pakistan Papua New Guinea Rwanda Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Solomon Islands South Africa Sri Lanka Tanzania Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tuvalu Uganda United Kingdom Vanuatu Zambia
Leaders
•Head	Charles III
•Secretary-General	The Baroness Scotland of Asthal
•Chair-in-Office	Paul Kagame
Establishment
•Balfour Declaration	19 November 1926
•Statute of Westminster	11 December 1931
•London Declaration	28 April 1949
Area
• Total	29,958,050 km2(11,566,870 sq mi)
Population
• 2016 estimate	2,418,964,000
• Density	75/km2(194.2/sq mi)
Website thecommonwealth.org

TheCommonwealth of Nations,often simply referred to asthe Commonwealth,is aninternational associationof56 member states,the vast majority of which are formerterritoriesof theBritish Empirefrom which it developed.They are connected through theiruse of the English languageand historical-cultural ties. The chief institutions of the organisation are theCommonwealth Secretariat,which focuses on intergovernmental relations, and theCommonwealth Foundation,which focuses on non-governmental relations between member nations.Numerousorganisationsare associated with and operate within the Commonwealth.

The Commonwealth dates back to the first half of the 20th century with thedecolonisationof the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was originally created as theBritish Commonwealth of Nationsthrough theBalfour Declarationat the1926 Imperial Conference,and formalised by the United Kingdom through theStatute of Westminsterin 1931. The current Commonwealth of Nations was formally constituted by theLondon Declarationin 1949, which modernised the community and established the member states as "free and equal".It continues to be known colloquially as theBritish Commonwealth.

TheHead of the CommonwealthisCharles III.He is king of 15 member states, known as theCommonwealth realms,whilst 36 other members arerepublics,and five others have different monarchs. Although he became head upon the death of his mother,Elizabeth II,the position is not technically hereditary.

Member states have no legal obligations to one another, though some have institutional links to other Commonwealth nations.Citizenship of a Commonwealth countryaffords benefits in some member countries, particularly in theUnited Kingdom,and Commonwealth countries are represented to one another byhigh commissionsrather than embassies. TheCommonwealth Charterdefines their shared values ofdemocracy,human rightsand therule of law,as promoted by the quadrennialCommonwealth Games.

A majority of Commonwealth countries aresmall states,withsmall island developing statesconstituting almost half its membership.

History

Conceptual origins

Main articles:British EmpireandHistoriography of the British Empire

Draft of the 1921Anglo-Irish Treaty,with "British Empire" crossed out and "British Commonwealth of Nations" added by hand.

The prime ministers of five members at the 1944Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference.(L-R)Mackenzie King(Canada),Jan Smuts(South Africa),Winston Churchill(United Kingdom),Peter Fraser(New Zealand) andJohn Curtin(Australia)

Queen Elizabeth II,in her address to Canada onDominion Dayin 1959, pointed out that theConfederation of Canadaon 1 July 1867 had been the birth of the "first independent country within the British Empire". She declared: "So, it also marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations."As long ago as 18 January 1884Lord Rosebery,while visitingAdelaide,South Australia,had described the changing British Empire, as some of its coloniesbecame more independent,as a "Commonwealth of Nations".Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred periodically fromthe first one in 1887,leading to the creation of theImperial Conferencesin 1911.

The Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. A specific proposal was presented byJan Smutsin 1917 when he coined the term "the British Commonwealth of Nations" and envisioned the "future constitutional relations and readjustments in essence"at theParis Peace Conference of 1919,attended by delegates from the Dominions as well as the United Kingdom.The term first received imperial statutory recognition in theAnglo-Irish Treatyof 1921, when the termBritish Commonwealth of Nationswas substituted forBritish Empirein the wording of the oath taken by members of parliament of theIrish Free State.

Adoption and formalisation

In theBalfour Declarationat the1926 Imperial Conference,the United Kingdom and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". The term "Commonwealth"was officially adopted to describe the community.

These aspects to the relationship were formalised by theStatute of Westminsterin 1931, which applied to Canada without the need for ratification, but Australia, New Zealand andNewfoundlandhad to ratify the statute for it to take effect. Newfoundland never did as due to economic hardship and the need for financial assistance from London, Newfoundland voluntarily accepted the suspension of self-government in 1934 and governance reverted to direct control from London. Newfoundland later joined Canada as itstenth provincein 1949.Australia and New Zealandratified the statute in 1942and1947respectively.

Although the Union of South Africa was not amongst the Dominions that needed to adopt the Statute of Westminster for it to take effect, two laws — theStatus of the Union Act, 1934,and the Royal Executive Functions and Seals Act, 1934 — were passed by theParliament of South Africato confirm South Africa's status as a sovereign state, and to incorporate the Statute of Westminster into thelaw of South Africa.

Second World War

Poster from theSecond World War,depicting soldiers from Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, theColony of Southern Rhodesia,South Africa andimperial India.

Main article:British Empire in World War II

Commonwealth countries and the Empire wereinvolvedin every major theatre of theSecond World War,with soldiers from different nations often fighting together. TheBritish Commonwealth Air Training Planwas established for pilots from across the Empire and Dominions, created by the governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.Troops from Australia, Britain, theBritish Rajand New Zealand made up theBritish Commonwealth Occupation Forcein post-war Japan.

Decolonisation and self-governance

For a more comprehensive list, seeList of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom.

After the Second World War ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components have become independent countries, whetherCommonwealth realmsor republics, and members of the Commonwealth. There remain the 14 mainly self-governingBritish overseas territorieswhich retain some political association with the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following theLondon Declaration,the word "British" was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature.

Burma (Myanmar since 1989) andAden(now part of Yemen) are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence. Former Britishprotectoratesandmandatesthat did not become members of the Commonwealth are Egypt (independent in 1922), Iraq (1932),Transjordan(1946),Palestine(part of which became the State of Israel in 1948), Sudan (1956),British Somaliland(which united with the formerItalian Somalilandin 1960 to form theSomali Republic), Kuwait (1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971) and the United Arab Emirates (1971).

The post-war Commonwealth was given a fresh mission by Queen Elizabeth II in her Christmas Day 1953 broadcast, in which she envisioned the Commonwealth as "an entirely new conception – built on the highest qualities of the Spirit of Man: friendship, loyalty, and the desire for freedom and peace".However, the British treasury was so weak that it could not operate independently of the United States. Furthermore, the loss of defence and financial roles underminedJoseph Chamberlain'searly 20th-century vision of a world empire that could combine Imperial preference, mutual defence and social growth. In addition, the United Kingdom's cosmopolitan role in world affairs became increasingly limited, especially with the losses of India and Singapore.Whilst British politicians at first hoped that the Commonwealth would preserve and project British influence, they gradually lost their enthusiasm, arguesKrishnan Srinivasan.Early enthusiasm waned as British policies came under fire at Commonwealth meetings. Public opinion became troubled as immigration from non-white member states became large-scale (see also:Commonwealth diaspora).

The termNew Commonwealthgained usage in the UK (especially in the 1960s and 1970s) to refer to recentlydecolonisedcountries, predominantly non-whiteanddevelopingcountries. It was often used in debates regarding immigration from these countries.The United Kingdom and the pre-1945 dominions became informally known as the Old Commonwealth, or more pointedly as the 'white Commonwealth',in reference to what had been known as the 'White Dominions'.

Commonwealth republics

Main article:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations

On 18 April 1949, Ireland formally became a republic in accordance with the IrishRepublic of Ireland Act 1948;in doing so, it also formally left the Commonwealth.Whilst Ireland had not actively participated in the Commonwealth since the early 1930s, other dominions wished to become republics without losing Commonwealth ties. The issue came to a head in April 1949 at aCommonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London.Under theLondon Declaration,as drafted byV. K. Krishna Menon,India agreed, when it became a republic in January 1950, it would remain in the Commonwealth and accept the British Sovereign as a "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth". Upon hearing this, KingGeorge VItoldMenon:"So, I've become 'as such'".Some other Commonwealth countries that have since become republics have chosen to leave, whilst others, such asGuyana,MauritiusandDominica,have remained members.

India's inaugural prime ministerJawaharlal Nehrudeclared on 16 May 1949, shortly following the Declaration, during theConstituent Assembly Debatesthat:

We join the Commonwealth obviously because we think it is beneficial to us and to certain causes in the world that we wish to advance. The other countries of the Commonwealth want us to remain there because they think it is beneficial to them. It is mutually understood that it is to the advantage of the nations in the Commonwealth and therefore they join. At the same time, it is made perfectly clear that each country is completely free to go its own way; it may be that they may go, sometimes go so far as to break away from the Commonwealth...Otherwise, apart from breaking the evil parts of the association, it is better to keep a co-operative association going which may do good in this world rather than break it.

The London Declaration is often seen as marking the beginning of the modern Commonwealth. Following India's precedent, other nations became republics, orconstitutional monarchieswith their own monarchs. Whilst some countries retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, their monarchies developed differently and soon became essentially independent of the British monarchy. The monarch is regarded as a separatelegal personalityin each realm, even though the same person is monarch of each realm.

Proposals to include Europe

At a time when Germany and France, together with Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, were planning what later became theEuropean Union,and newly independent African countries were joining the Commonwealth, new ideas were floated to prevent the United Kingdom from becoming isolated in economic affairs. British trade with the Commonwealth was four times larger than its trade with Europe. In 1956 and 1957, the British government, under Prime MinisterAnthony Eden,considered a "Plan G" to create a European free trade zone whilst also protecting the favoured status of the Commonwealth.The United Kingdom also considered inviting Scandinavian and other European countries to join the Commonwealth, so that it would become a major economic common market.

At the time of theSuez Crisisin 1956, and in the face of colonial unrest and international tensions, French prime ministerGuy Molletproposed to British prime ministerAnthony Edenthat their two countries bejoined in a "union".When that proposal was turned down, Mollet suggested that France join the Commonwealth, possibly with "a common citizenship arrangementon the Irish basis".These ideas faded away with the end of the Suez Crisis.

Expansion

The first member to be admitted without having any constitutional link to the British Empire wasMozambiquein 1995 following its first democratic elections. Mozambique was a formerPortuguese colony.Its entry preceded theEdinburgh Declarationand the current membership guidelines.In 2009, Rwanda became the second country to be admitted to the Commonwealth not to have any constitutional links to Britain. It was aBelgian trust territorythat had been a district ofGerman East AfricauntilWorld War I.

In 2022,Togo,a former French mandate territory, andGabon,a former French colony, joined the Commonwealth, despite never having been under British rule.Gabon was partially suspended from the Commonwealth in September 2023 following a military coup, with two years given by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group for the country to hold new elections before a full suspension of Commonwealth membership would be considered.

Prior to Togo's admission at the2022 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting,Togolese Foreign MinisterRobert Dusseysaid that he expected Commonwealth membership to provide opportunities for Togolese citizens to learnEnglishand access new educational and cultural resources. He also remarked that the country sought closer ties with theAnglophone world.

Structure

Head of the Commonwealth

Main article:Head of the Commonwealth

Queen Elizabeth II,the longest-servingHead of the Commonwealth,was in office for 70 years.

Under the formula of theLondon Declaration,Charles IIIis theHead of the Commonwealth.However, when the monarch dies, the successor to the crown does not automatically become the new head of the Commonwealth.Despite this, at their meeting in April 2018, Commonwealth leaders agreed thatPrince Charlesshould succeed his motherElizabeth IIas head afterher death.The position is symbolic, representing the free association of independent members,the majority of which (36) arerepublics,and five have monarchs of differentroyal houses(Brunei,Eswatini,Lesotho,MalaysiaandTonga).

Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting

Main article:Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting

The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennialCommonwealth Heads of Government Meeting(CHOGM), whereCommonwealth Heads of Government,including (amongst others)prime ministersand presidents, assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM is the successor to theCommonwealth Prime Ministers Meetingsand, earlier, theImperial Conferencesand Colonial Conferences, dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers and others. Members in arrears, as special members before them, are not invited to send representatives to either ministerial meetings or CHOGMs.

The head of government hosting the CHOGM is called thechair-in-office (CIO)and retains the position until the following CHOGM. Sincethe most recent CHOGM,in Rwanda in 2022, the chair-in-office has beenPaul Kagame,thepresident of Rwanda.

The 26th CHOGM was initially to be held inKigali,Rwanda, in June 2020. Owing to theCOVID-19pandemic, it was rescheduled to be held there in the week of 21 June 2021 before once again being postponed to 25-26 June 2022. It was accompanied by meetings of a Commonwealth Business Forum, a Commonwealth Youth Forum, a Commonwealth Women's Forum and a Commonwealth People's Forum.

Commonwealth Secretariat

Main article:Commonwealth Secretariat

Marlborough House,London, the headquarters of theCommonwealth Secretariat,the Commonwealth's principal intergovernmental institution

TheCommonwealth Secretariat,established in 1965, is the main intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth, facilitating consultation and co-operation amongst member governments and countries.It is responsible to member governments collectively. The Commonwealth of Nations is represented in theUnited Nations General Assemblyby the secretariat as anobserver.The secretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetings of ministers, consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists policy development and provides policy advice, and facilitates multilateral communication amongst the member governments. It also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development of their countries and in support of the Commonwealth's fundamental political values.

The secretariat is headed by theCommonwealth secretary-general,who is elected by theCommonwealth heads of governmentfor no more than two four-year terms. The secretary-general and two deputy secretaries-general direct the divisions of the Secretariat. The present secretary-general isPatricia Scotland, Baroness Scotland of Asthal,from Dominica, who took office on 1 April 2016, succeedingKamalesh Sharmaof India (2008–2016). The first secretary-general wasArnold Smithof Canada (1965–1975), followed by SirShridath Ramphalof Guyana (1975–1990), ChiefEmeka Anyaokuof Nigeria (1990–1999), andDon McKinnonof New Zealand (2000–2008).

Commonwealth citizenship and high commissioners

Thehigh commissionofThe GambiainNew Delhi

Main articles:Commonwealth citizenandHigh commissioner (Commonwealth)

Some member states grant particular rights to Commonwealth citizens. The United Kingdom and several others, mostly in theCaribbean,grantthe right to voteto resident Commonwealth citizens.Some countries, including the United Kingdom, have preferential citizenship acquisition or residency policies for Commonwealth citizens.Initially, Commonwealth countries were not considered to be "foreign" to each other as their citizens wereBritish subjects.Citizenship laws have evolved independently in each Commonwealth country. For example, in Australia, for the purpose of considering certain constitutional and legal provisions in theHigh Courtcase ofSue v Hill,the United Kingdom was held to be a "foreign power".Similarly, inNolan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs,the nationals of other Commonwealth realms were held to be "aliens".

Commonwealth citizens may receiveconsular assistancefrom other Commonwealth countries. In particular, British embassies and consulates may provide assistance to Commonwealth nationals in non-Commonwealth countries if their own country is not represented.Commonwealth citizens are eligible to apply forBritish emergency passports.Australia issuesDocuments of Identityin exceptional circumstances to resident Commonwealth citizens who are unable to obtain valid travel documents from their countries of origin and must travel urgently.

The close association amongst Commonwealth countries is reflected in the diplomatic protocols of the Commonwealth countries. For example, when engaging bilaterally with one another, Commonwealth governments exchangehigh commissionersinstead ofambassadors.

Judicial connections

TheJudicial Committee of the Privy Councilis thehighest court of appealfor several Commonwealth nations.

TheJudicial Committee of the Privy Councilis thesupreme courtof 14 Commonwealth countries, including theCook IslandsandNiuewhich are under theRealm of New Zealand(though New Zealand itself does not make appeals to the Privy Council).

Commonwealth nationals are eligible for appointment to theHigh Court of Fiji,with the Court relying on judges from other Commonwealth nations.

Military connections

Soldiers of theIndian Army5th Gurkha Riflesin post-war Japan as part of theBritish Commonwealth Occupation Force,1946.

Commonwealth citizens are eligible to serve in theBritish Armed Forces.According to theBritish Army,"Commonwealth soldiers are, and always will be, an important and valued part of the fabric of the British Army." Thousands of potential Commonwealth recruits have been turned away due to a lack of eligible vacancies.

Gurkhasoldiers fromNepal,though it is not a Commonwealth country, have long fought alongside British and Commonwealth troops.They continue to be recruited by the British Army (Brigade of Gurkhas),Indian Army(Gorkha regiments) andRoyal Brunei Armed Forces(Gurkha Reserve Unit), as well theGurkha Contingentof theSingapore Police Force.Most members of Brunei's Gurkha Reserve Unit are veterans from the British Army and Singaporean police.

Membership

The members of the Commonwealth shaded according to their political status. Commonwealth realms are shown in blue, whilst republics are shaded pink, and members with their own monarchies are displayed in green.

Criteria

Main article:Commonwealth of Nations membership criteria

The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth of Nations have developed over time from a series of separate documents. TheStatute of Westminster 1931,as a fundamental founding document of the organisation, laid out that membership required dominionhood. The 1949London Declarationended this, allowing republican and indigenous monarchic members on the condition that they recognisedKing George VIas "Head of the Commonwealth".In the wake of the wave ofdecolonisationin the 1960s, these constitutional principles were augmented by political, economic, and social principles. The first of these was set out in 1961, when it was decided that respect forracial equalitywould be a requirement for membership, leading directly to the withdrawal of South Africa's re-application (which they were required to make under the formula of the London Declaration upon becoming a republic). The 14 points of the 1971Singapore Declarationdedicated all members to the principles ofworld peace,liberty,human rights,equality,andfree trade.

These criteria were unenforceable for two decades,until, in 1991, theHarare Declarationwas issued, dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonisation, the end of theCold War,and the end ofapartheidin South Africa.The mechanisms by which these principles would be applied were created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme,which created theCommonwealth Ministerial Action Group(CMAG), which has the power to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration.Also in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codify the full requirements for membership. Upon reporting in 1997, as adopted under theEdinburgh Declaration,the Inter-Governmental Group ruled that any future members would "as a rule" have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member.

In addition to this new rule, the former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements are that members must accept and comply with theHarare principles,be fullysovereign states,recogniseKing Charles IIIas head of the Commonwealth, accept theEnglish languageas the means of Commonwealth communication, and respect the wishes of the general population with regard to Commonwealth membership.These requirements had undergone review, and a report on potential amendments was presented by theCommittee on Commonwealth Membershipat the2007 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.New members were not admitted at this meeting, though applications for admission were considered at the2009 CHOGM.

New members must "as a general rule" have a direct constitutional link to an existing member. In most cases, this is due to being a former colony of the United Kingdom, but some have links to other countries, either exclusively or more directly (e.g., Bangladesh to Pakistan, Samoa to New Zealand, Papua New Guinea to Australia, and Singapore to Malaysia). Mozambique, in 1995, was the first country to join without such a constitutional connection, leading to the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines.

In 2009, Rwanda, formerly under Belgian and German rule, joined.Consideration for Rwanda's admission was considered an "exceptional circumstance" by theCommonwealth Secretariat.Rwanda was permitted to join despite theCommonwealth Human Rights Initiative(CHRI) finding that "the state of governance and human rights in Rwanda does not satisfy Commonwealth standards", and that it "does not therefore qualify for admission".CHRI commented that: "It does not make sense to admit a state that already does not satisfy Commonwealth standards. This would tarnish the reputation of the Commonwealth and confirm the opinion of many people and civic organisations that the leaders of its governments do not really care for democracy and human rights, and that its periodic, solemn declarations are merely hot air."

In 2022, the former French territories of Togo and Gabon joined the Commonwealth.

Members

Main article:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations

Flags of the members of the Commonwealth inParliament Square,London

The Commonwealth flag flying at theParliament of CanadainOttawa

The Commonwealth comprises 56 countries, across all inhabited continents.33 members are small states, including 25 small island developing states. In 2023, the Commonwealth had a population of 2.5 billion.The Commonwealth is the largest association of 'Third World' or 'Global South' countries.

With a population of 1.4 billion, India is the most populous Commonwealth country. Tuvalu is the smallest member, with about 12,000 people.

The status of "member in arrears" is used to denote those that are in arrears in paying subscription dues. The status was originally known as "special membership",but was renamed on theCommittee on Commonwealth Membership's recommendation.There are currently no members in arrears. The most recent member in arrears, Nauru, returned to full membership in June 2011.Nauru has alternated between special and full membership since joining the Commonwealth, depending on its financial situation.

Economy of member countries

Main article:List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP (nominal)

In 2019, the Commonwealth members had a combinedgross domestic productof over $9 trillion, 78% of which is accounted for by the four largest economies: India ($3.737 trillion), United Kingdom ($3.124 trillion), Canada ($1.652 trillion), and Australia ($1.379 trillion).

Applicants

See also:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations § Prospective members

In 1997 the Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that, to become a member of the Commonwealth, an applicant country should, as a rule, have had a constitutional association with an existing Commonwealth member; that it should comply with Commonwealth values, principles and priorities as set out in theHarare Declaration;and that it should accept Commonwealth norms and conventions.

South Sudanese politicians have expressed interest in joining the Commonwealth.A senior Commonwealth source stated in 2006 that "many people have assumed an interest from Israel, but there has been no formal approach".Israel and Palestine are both potential candidates for membership.

PresidentYahya Jammehunilaterally withdrew the Gambia from the Commonwealth in October 2013.However,newly electedpresidentAdama Barrowreturned the country to the organisation in February 2018.

Other eligible applicants could be any of the remaining inhabitedBritish Overseas Territories,Crown Dependencies,Australian external territoriesand theAssociated States of New Zealandif they become fully independent.Many such jurisdictions are already directly represented within the Commonwealth, particularly through theCommonwealth Family.There are also formerBritish possessionsthat have not become independent. AlthoughHong Konghas become part of China, it continues to participate in some of the institutions within the Commonwealth Family, including theCommonwealth Lawyers Association,theCommonwealth Parliamentary Association,theAssociation of Commonwealth Universities,the Commonwealth Association of Legislative Counseland theCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC).

All three of the Crown dependencies regard their existing situation as unsatisfactory and have lobbied for change. TheStates of Jerseyhave called on the UK foreign secretary to request that the Commonwealth heads of government "consider granting associate membership to Jersey and the other Crown Dependencies as well as any other territories at a similarly advanced stage of autonomy". Jersey has proposed that it be accorded "self-representation in all Commonwealth meetings; full participation in debates and procedures, with a right to speak where relevant and the opportunity to enter into discussions with those who are full members; and no right to vote in the Ministerial or Heads of Government meetings, which is reserved for full members".TheStates of Guernseyand theGovernment of the Isle of Manhave made calls of a similar nature for a more integrated relationship with the Commonwealth,including more direct representation and enhanced participation in Commonwealth organisations and meetings, including Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings.TheChief Minister of the Isle of Manhas said: "A closer connection with the Commonwealth itself would be a welcome further development of the Island's international relationships".

Suspension

Main article:Suspension from the Commonwealth of Nations

Members can be suspended "from the Councils of the Commonwealth" for "serious or persistent violations" of theHarare Declaration,particularly in abrogating their responsibility to have democratic government.Suspensions are agreed by theCommonwealth Ministerial Action Group(CMAG), which meets regularly to address potential breaches of the Harare Declaration. Suspended members are not represented at meetings of Commonwealth leaders and ministers, although they remain members of the organisation.

Zimbabwewas suspended from the Commonwealth during the presidency ofRobert Mugabe(pictured), subsequently withdrawing. The country applied to rejoin following Mugabe's removal from power.

Nigeriawas suspended between 11 November 1995 and 29 May 1999,following its execution ofKen Saro-Wiwaon the eve of the1995 CHOGM.Pakistan was the second country to be suspended, on 18 October 1999, following themilitary coupbyPervez Musharraf.The Commonwealth's longest suspension came to an end on 22 May 2004, when Pakistan's suspension was lifted following the restoration ofthe country's constitution.Pakistan was suspended for a second time, far more briefly, for six months from 22 November 2007, when Musharrafcalled a state of emergency.Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 over concerns regarding the electoral and land reform policies ofRobert Mugabe'sZANU-PFgovernment,before it withdrew from the organisation in 2003.On 15 May 2018, Zimbabwe applied to rejoin the Commonwealth.

The declaration of a Republic inFijiin 1987, aftermilitary coupsdesigned to denyIndo-Fi gian spolitical power, was not accompanied by an application to remain. Commonwealth membership was held to have lapsed until 1997, after discriminatory provisions in the republican constitution were repealed and reapplication for membership made.Fiji has since been suspended twice, with the first imposed from 6 June 2000to 20 December 2001 afteranother coup.Fiji was suspended yet again in December 2006, followingthe most recent coup.At first, the suspension applied only to membership on the Councils of the Commonwealth.After failing to meet a Commonwealth deadline for setting a date for national elections by 2010, Fiji was "fully suspended" on 1 September 2009.The secretary-general of the Commonwealth,Kamalesh Sharma,confirmed that full suspension meant that Fiji would be excluded from Commonwealth meetings,sporting eventsand the technical assistance programme (with an exception for assistance in re-establishing democracy). Sharma stated that Fiji would remain a member of the Commonwealth during its suspension, but would be excluded from emblematic representation by the secretariat.On 19 March 2014 Fiji's full suspension was amended to a suspension from councils of the Commonwealth by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group, permitting Fiji to join a number of Commonwealth activities, including the Commonwealth Games.Fiji's suspension was lifted in September 2014.The Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group fully reinstated Fiji as a member followingelections in September 2014.

Most recently, during 2013 and 2014, international pressure mounted to suspend Sri Lanka from the Commonwealth, citing grave human rights violations by the government of PresidentMahinda Rajapaksa.There were also calls to change theCommonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2013from Sri Lanka to another member country. Canadian prime ministerStephen Harperthreatened to boycott the event, but was instead represented at the meeting byDeepak Obhrai.UK prime ministerDavid Cameronalso chose to attend.These concerns were rendered moot bythe electionof opposition leaderMaithripala Sirisenaas president in 2015.

Withdrawal and termination

See also:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations § Former members,andMember states of the Commonwealth of Nations § Dissolved members

As membership is purely voluntary, member governments can choose at any time to leave the Commonwealth. The first state to do so was Ireland in 1949 following its decision todeclare itself a republic,although it had not participated in the Commonwealth since 1932. At the time, all members accepted theBritish monarchas head of state as a condition of membership. This rule was changed after Ireland's departure to allowIndiato retain membership when it became a republic in 1950, although Ireland did not rejoin. Now, the majority of the Commonwealth members, including all those from Africa, are republics or have their own native monarch.

Pakistanleft on 30 January 1972 in protest at the Commonwealth's recognition of breakaway Bangladesh, but rejoined on 2 August 1989. Zimbabwe's membership was suspended in 2002 on the grounds ofalleged human rights violationsand deliberate misgovernment, and Zimbabwe's government terminated its membership in 2003.The Gambia left the Commonwealth on 3 October 2013,and rejoined on 8 February 2018.

The Maldives withdrew from the Commonwealth on 13 October 2016,citing Commonwealth's "punitive actions against the Maldives since 2012" after the allegedly forced resignation of Maldivian PresidentMohamed Nasheedamongst the reasons for withdrawal.Following the election ofIbrahim Mohamed Solihas president in November 2018, the Maldives announced its intention to reapply to join the Commonwealth.They rejoined on 1 February 2020.

Although heads of government have the power to suspend member states from active participation, the Commonwealth has no provision for the expulsion of members.

Having left the Commonwealth over itsapartheidpolicies,South Africawas readmitted in 1994 followingnon-racial elections.

South Africa was effectively barred from continuing as a member after it became a republic in 1961, due to hostility from many members, particularly those in Africa and Asia as well as Canada, to its policy of racialapartheid.The South African government withdrew its application to remain in the organisation as a republic when it became clear at the1961 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conferencethat any such application would be rejected.South Africa was re-admitted to the Commonwealth in 1994, following itsfirst multiracial electionsthat year. The Commonwealth provided technical assistance and training for a peacekeeping force prior to election, with Commonwealth observers significantly present during the election itself.

Thetransfer of sovereignty over Hong Kongin 1997 ended the territory's status as a part of the Commonwealth through the United Kingdom. Non-sovereign states or regions are not permitted to become members of the Commonwealth. The government of China has not pursued membership. Hong Kong has nevertheless continued to participate in some of the organisations of theCommonwealth Family,such as theCommonwealth Lawyers Association(hosted the Commonwealth Lawyers Conference in 1983 and 2009), theCommonwealth Parliamentary Association(and the Westminster Seminar on Parliamentary Practice and Procedures), theAssociation of Commonwealth Universitiesand the Commonwealth Association of Legislative Counsel,as well as theCommonwealth War Graves Commission(CWGC).

Politics

Objectives and activities

The Commonwealth's objectives were first outlined in the 1971Singapore Declaration,which committed the Commonwealth to the institution ofworld peace;promotion ofrepresentative democracyandindividual liberty;the pursuit of equality and opposition to racism; the fight against poverty, ignorance, and disease; andfree trade.To these were added opposition to discrimination on the basis of gender by theLusaka Declarationof 1979,andenvironmental sustainabilityby theLangkawi Declarationof 1989.These objectives were reinforced by theHarare Declarationin 1991.

The Commonwealth's current highest-priority aims are on the promotion of democracy and development, as outlined in the 2003Aso Rock Declaration,which built on those in Singapore and Harare and clarified their terms of reference, stating, "We are committed to democracy, good governance, human rights, gender equality, and a more equitable sharing of the benefits of globalisation."The Commonwealth website lists its areas of work as: democracy, economics, education, gender, governance, human rights, law, small states, sport, sustainability, and youth.

Competence

In October 2010, a leaked memo from the Secretary General instructing staff not to speak out on human rights was published, leading to accusations that the Commonwealth was not being vocal enough on its core values.

TheCommonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011considered a report by aCommonwealth Eminent Persons Group(EPG) panel which asserted that the organisation had lost its relevance and was decaying due to the lack of a mechanism to censure member countries when they violated human rights or democratic norms.The panel made 106 "urgent" recommendations including the adoption of a Charter of the Commonwealth, the creation of a new commissioner on the rule of law, democracy and human rights to track persistent human rights abuses and allegations of political repression by Commonwealth member states, recommendations for the repeal oflaws againsthomosexualityin 41 Commonwealth states and a ban onforced marriage.The failure to release the report, or accept its recommendations for reforms in the area of human rights, democracy and the rule of law, was described as a "disgrace" by former British foreign secretaryMalcolm Rifkind,a member of the EPG, who told a press conference: "The Commonwealth faces a very significant problem. It's not a problem of hostility or antagonism, it's more of a problem of indifference. Its purpose is being questioned, its relevance is being questioned and part of that is because its commitment to enforce the values for which it stands is becoming ambiguous in the eyes of many member states. The Commonwealth is not a private club of the governments or the secretariat. It belongs to the people of the Commonwealth."

In the end, two-thirds of the EPG's 106 urgently recommended reforms were referred to study groups, an act described by one EPG member as having them "kicked into the long grass". There was no agreement to create the recommended position of human rights commissioner, instead a ministerial management group was empowered with enforcement: the group includes alleged human rights offenders. It was agreed to develop a charter of values for the Commonwealth without any decision on how compliance with its principles would be enforced.

The result of the effort was that a newCharter of the Commonwealthwas signed by Queen Elizabeth II on 11 March 2013 at Marlborough House, which opposes "all forms of discrimination, whether rooted in gender, race, colour, creed, political belief or other grounds".

Economy

See also:List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP

Economic data by member

Economies of the Commonwealth of Nations 2012

Member states Population (2021) GDP (nominal, US$) GDP (PPP, US$) Comm. realm? millions per capita millions per capita Antigua and Barbuda 93,219 1,176 12,480 1,778 18,492 Yes Australia 25,921,089 1,520,608 61,789 1,008,547 41,974 Yes Bahamas 407,906 8,149 22,431 11,765 31,978 Yes Bangladesh 169,356,251 115,610 743 291,299 1,777 No Barbados 281,200 3,685 13,453 — — No Belize 400,031 1,448 4,059 2,381 6,672 Yes Botswana 2,588,423 14,411 8,533 34,038 14,746 No Brunei 445,373 16,954 40,301 21,992 51,760 No Cameroon 27,198,628 24,984 1,260 50,820 2,359 No Canada 38,155,012 1,821,424 50,344 1,489,165 40,420 Yes Cyprus 1,244,188 22,981 30,670 26,720 32,254 No Dominica 72,412 480 7,154 906 13,288 No Ghana 32,833,031 40,710 1,570 51,943 1,871 No Grenada 124,610 790 7,780 1,142 10,837 Yes Guyana 804,567 2,851 3,408 2,704 — No India 1,407,563,842 3,732,224 2,171 11,468,022 7,874 No Jamaica 2,827,695 14,840 5,335 — — Yes Kenya 53,005,614 37,229 808 76,016 1,710 No Kiribati 128,874 176 1,649 248 2,337 No Lesotho 2,281,454 2,448 1,106 4,027 1,691 No Malawi 19,889,742 4,264 365 14,344 893 No Malaysia 33,573,874 303,526 9,977 501,249 16,051 No Maldives 521,457 2,222 6,405 3,070 8,871 No Malta 526,748 8,722 21,380 12,138 27,504 No Mauritius 1,298,915 10,492 8,755 20,210 14,420 No Mozambique 32,077,072 14,588 533 25,805 975 No Namibia 2,530,151 12,807 5,383 16,918 6,801 No Nauru 12,511 — — — — No New Zealand 5,129,727 139,768 36,254 139,640 31,082 Yes Nigeria 213,401,323 262,606 1,502 449,289 2,533 No Pakistan 231,402,117 231,182 1,189 517,873 2,745 No Papua New Guinea 9,949,437 15,654 1,845 20,771 2,676 Yes Rwanda 13,461,888 7,103 8,874 15,517 1,282 No Saint Kitts and Nevis 47,606 748 13,144 966 17,226 Yes Saint Lucia 179,651 1,186 7,154 2,016 11,597 Yes Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 104,332 713 6,291 1,202 10,715 Yes Samoa 218,764 677 3,485 853 4,475 No Seychelles 106,471 1,032 12,321 2,371 25,788 No Sierra Leone 8,420,641 3,796 496 8,125 1,131 No Singapore 5,941,060 274,701 46,241 328,323 60,688 No Solomon Islands 707,851 1,008 1,517 1,718 2,923 Yes South Africa 59,392,255 384,313 8,070 585,625 10,960 No Sri Lanka 21,773,441 59,421 2,835 126,993 5,582 No Eswatini 1,192,271 3,747 3,831 6,458 6,053 No Tanzania 63,588,334 28,249 532 74,269 1,512 No Tonga 106,017 472 4,152 527 4,886 No Trinidad and Tobago 1,525,663 23,986 16,699 35,638 25,074 No Tuvalu 11,204 37 3,636 — — Yes Uganda 45,853,778 19,881 487 49,130 1,345 No United Kingdom 67,281,039 3,124,650 38,974 3,174,921 35,598 Yes Vanuatu 319,137 785 3,094 1,139 4,379 No Zambia 19,473,125 20,678 1,425 24,096 1,621 No Commonwealth 2,418,964,000 9,766,209 3,844 13,119,929 4,035 — Commonwealth (realms) 144,033,000 5,966,408 43,493 4,945,842 36,053 —

Postwar

During the Second World War, the British Empire played a major role in supporting British finances. Foreign exchange reserves were pooled in London, to be used to fight the war. In effect the United Kingdom procured £2.3 billion, of which £1.3 billion was fromBritish India.The debt was held in the form of British government securities and became known as "sterling balances". By 1950, India, Pakistan and Ceylon had spent much of their sterling, whilst other countries accumulated more. The sterling area included all of the Commonwealth except for Canada, together with some smaller countries especially in the Persian Gulf. They held their foreign-exchange in sterling, protecting that currency from runs and facilitating trade and investment inside the Commonwealth. It was a formal relationship with fixed exchange rates, periodic meetings at Commonwealth summits to coordinate trade policy, and domestic economic policies. The United Kingdom ran a trade surplus, and the other countries were mostly producers of raw materials sold to the United Kingdom. The commercial rationale was gradually less attractive to the Commonwealth; however, access to the growing London capital market remained an important advantage to the newly independent nations. As the United Kingdom moved increasingly close to Europe, however, the long-term ties began to be in doubt.

UK joins the European Economic Community

By 1961, with a sluggish economy, the United Kingdom attempted to join theEuropean Economic Community,but this was repeatedly vetoed byCharles de Gaulle.Entrywas finally achieved in 1973. Queen Elizabeth was one of the few remaining links between the UK and the Commonwealth. HistorianBen Pimlottargues that joining Europe "constituted the most decisive step yet in the progress of severance of familial ties between the United Kingdom and its former Empire... It reduced the remaining links to sentimental and cultural ones, and legal niceties."

The newly independent countries of Africa and Asia concentrated on their own internal political and economic development, and sometimes their role in theCold War.The United States, international agencies, and the Soviet Union became important players, and the British role receded. Whilst there was opposition to British entry into the EEC from many countries, such as Australia, others preferred the economic advantages brought by British access to the Common Market.The historic ties between the former dominion nations and the United Kingdom were rapidly fraying. The Canadian economy increasingly focused on trade with the United States, and not on trade with the United Kingdom or other Commonwealth nations. Internal Canadian disputes revolved around the growing American cultural and economic presence, and the strong force ofQuebec nationalism.In 1964, theMaple Leaf flagreplaced theCanadian Ensign,with Gregory Johnson describing it as "the last gasp of empire".Australia and New Zealand were generally opposed to the United Kingdom's entry and exerted considerable influence on the eventual terms of accession in 1972, for which the United Kingdom agreed to transitional arrangements and monetary compensation to protect important export markets.Russell Ward summarises the period in economic terms: "In fact the United Kingdom, as Australia's chief trading partner, was being very rapidly replaced just at this time by the United States and an economically resurgent Japan, but most people were scarcely aware of this.... It was feared that British entry into the Common Market was bound to mean abolition, or at least scaling down, of preferential tariff arrangements for Australians goods."

Trade

Further information:Commonwealth free trade

Although the Commonwealth does not have a multilateral trade agreement, research by theRoyal Commonwealth Societyhas shown that trade with another Commonwealth member is up to 50% more than with a non-member on average, with smaller and less wealthy states having a higher propensity to trade within the Commonwealth.At the 2005 Summit in Malta, the heads of government endorsed pursuing free trade amongst Commonwealth members on a bilateral basis.

Following itsvote in June 2016 to leave the EU,some in the United Kingdom suggested the Commonwealth as an alternative to itsmembershipin theEuropean Union;however, it is far from clear that this would either offer sufficient economic benefit to replace the impact of leaving the EU or be acceptable to other member states.Although the EU is already in the process of negotiating free trade agreements with many Commonwealth countries such as India and Canada, it took the EU almost ten years to come to an agreement with Canada,due to the challenge associated with achieving the necessary EU-wide approvals.

On 17 December 2021, following the United Kingdom's exit from the European Union, Australia and the United Kingdom signed theAustralia–United Kingdom Free Trade Agreement,which on ratification eliminated tariffs and increased opportunities for movement between the two countries.

Commonwealth Family

Commonwealth House, the headquarters of theRoyal Commonwealth Society

Main article:Commonwealth Family

Commonwealth countries share many links outside government, with over a hundred non-governmental organisations, notably for sport, culture, education, law, and charity claiming to operate on a Commonwealth-wide basis.

The Commonwealth Secretariat regulates formal accreditation with the Commonwealth through its Accreditation Committee. The admittance criteria includes upholding a commitment to the Commonwealth Charter. There are currently approximately 80 organisations holding formal accreditation.These include theAssociation of Commonwealth Universitieswhich manages theCommonwealth Scholarshipallowing students to study in other Commonwealth countries, and theCommonwealth Parliamentary Associationwhich links together over 180 Commonwealthparliaments.

Commonwealth Foundation

Main article:Commonwealth Foundation

TheCommonwealth Foundationis an intergovernmental organisation, resourced by and reporting to Commonwealth governments, and guided by Commonwealth values and priorities. Its mandate is to strengthen civil society in the achievement of Commonwealth priorities: democracy and good governance, respect for human rights and gender equality, poverty eradication, people-centred and sustainable development, and to promote arts and culture.

The Foundation was established in 1965 by theHeads of Government.Admittance is open to all members of the Commonwealth, and in December 2008, stood at 46 out of the 53 member countries. Associate Membership, which is open to associated states or overseas territories of member governments, has been granted to Gibraltar. 2005 saw celebrations for the Foundation's 40th Anniversary. The Foundation is headquartered inMarlborough House,Pall Mall, London.Regular liaison and co-operation between the Secretariat and the Foundation is in place. The Foundation continues to serve the broad purposes for which it was established as written in the Memorandum of Understanding.

Commonwealth Games

Main article:Commonwealth Games

TheCommonwealth Gamesare the third-largest multi-sport event in the world, bringing together globally popular sports and peculiarly "Commonwealth" sports, such asrugby sevens,shown here at the2006 GamesinMelbourne.

The Commonwealth Games, amulti-sport event,is held every four years; the2018 Commonwealth Gameswere held inGold Coast, Australia,2022 Commonwealth GamesinBirminghamand2026 Commonwealth GamesinGlasgow.As well as the usual athletic disciplines, as at theSummer Olympic Games,the games include sports particularly popular in the Commonwealth, such asbowls,netball,andrugby sevens.Started in 1930 as the Empire Games, the games were founded on the Olympic model ofamateurism,but were deliberately designed to be "the Friendly Games",with the goal of promoting relations between Commonwealth countries and celebrating their shared sporting and cultural heritage.

The games are the Commonwealth's most visible activityand interest in the operation of the Commonwealth increases greatly when the Games are held.There is controversy over whether the games—and sport generally—should be involved in the Commonwealth's wider political concerns.The 1977Gleneagles Agreementwas signed to commit Commonwealth countries to combatapartheidthrough discouraging sporting contact with South Africa (which was not then a member), whilst the1986 gameswere boycotted by most African, Asian, and Caribbean countries for the failure of other countries to enforce the Gleneagles Agreement.

Commonwealth Youth Games

Main article:Commonwealth Youth Games

TheCommonwealth Youth Gamesis the youth version of the Commonwealth Games and it is aimed from younger athletes aged between 14 and 18 years. The2000 Commonwealth Youth Gameswas the inaugural edition of the Commonwealth Youth Games, first held in Edinburgh, Scotland.

Themost recent editionof the games was held in 2023 in Trinidad and Tobago.

Commonwealth War Graves Commission

Main article:Commonwealth War Graves Commission

TheCommonwealth War Graves Commissioncommemorates 1.7 million Commonwealth war dead and maintains 2,500 war cemeteries around the world, including this one inGallipoli.

The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is responsible for maintaining thewar gravesof 1.7 million service personnel who died in the First and Second World Wars fighting for Commonwealth member states. Founded in 1917 (as the Imperial War Graves Commission), the commission has constructed 2,500war cemeteries,and maintains individual graves at another 20,000 sites around the world.The vast majority of the latter are civilian cemeteries in the United Kingdom. In 1998, the CWGC made the records of its buried available online to facilitate easier searching.

Commonwealth war cemeteries often feature similarhorticultureand architecture, with larger cemeteries being home to aCross of SacrificeandStone of Remembrance.The CWGC is notable for marking the graves identically, regardless of the rank, country of origin, race, or religion of the buried.It is funded by voluntary agreement by six Commonwealth members, in proportion to the nationality of the casualties in the graves maintained,with 75% of the funding coming from the United Kingdom.

Commonwealth of Learning

Main article:Commonwealth of Learning

The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is an intergovernmental organisation created by theheads of governmentto encourage the development and sharing of open learning/distance education knowledge, resources and technologies. COL is helping developing nations improve access to quality education and training.

Commonwealth Local Government Forum

Main article:Commonwealth Local Government Forum

The Commonwealth Local Government Forum (CLGF) is a global local government organisation, bringing together local authorities, their national associations and the ministries responsible for local government in the member countries of the Commonwealth. CLGF works with national andlocal governmentsto support the development ofdemocratic valuesand good local governance and is the associated organisation officially recognised byCommonwealth Heads of Governmentas the representative body for local government in the Commonwealth.

CLGF is unique in bringing together central, provincial and local spheres of government involved in local government policy and decision-making. CLGF members include local government associations, individual local authorities, ministries dealing with local government, and research and professional organisations who work with local government. Practitioner to practitioner support is at the core of CLGF's work across the Commonwealth and within the region, using CLGF's own members to support others both within and between regions. CLGF is a member of the Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments, the formal partner of the UN Major Group of Local Authorities.

Culture

See also:British culture

Commonwealth countries share a common culture which includes the English language, sports, legal systems, education and government. These commonalities are the result of the Commonwealth's heritage, having developed out of the British Empire.Symbols of the Commonwealth include theCommonwealth FlagandCommonwealth Day.Remembrance Dayis commemorated across the Commonwealth.

Sport

Rwanda Cricket Stadium,Kigali,Rwanda.Commonwealth membership has been credited with popularising the game in the country, which was never in the British Empire.

Many Commonwealth nations play similar sports that are considered quintessentially British in character, rooted in and developed under British rule or hegemony, includingcricket,football,rugby,field hockeyandnetball.These ties are particularly strong between the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa acrossrugby union,cricket,netball,andfield hockey,with Australia inrugby league,with the Caribbean nations in cricket and netball, and with the Indian subcontinent in cricket and hockey. Canada, by contrast, is dominated by North American sports, including baseball instead of cricket, basketball rather than netball, ice hockey rather than field hockey and Canadian football, rather than rugby union or league. Canada does, however, maintain small enthusiastic communities in all the more traditional Commonwealth sports, having reached the World Cup in each of them, and is the homeplace of theCommonwealth Games,hosting theinaugural edition in Hamiltonin 1930.

This shared sporting landscape has led to the development of friendly national rivalries between the main sporting nations that have often defined their relations with each other, and in the cases of India, Australia and New Zealand, have played a major part in defining their emerging national character (in cricket, rugby league and rugby union). Indeed, said rivalries preserved close ties by providing a constant in international relationships, even as the Empire transformed into the Commonwealth.Externally, playing these sports is seen to be a sign of sharing a certain Commonwealth culture; the adoption ofcricket at schools in Rwandais seen as symbolic of the country's move towards Commonwealth membership.More broadly, Rwanda's membership of the Commonwealth has been credited with helping popularise cricket in the country, with both men and women playing it in orphanages, schools, universities and cricket clubs.

The Commonwealth Games alongside the youth version, a quadrennial multi-sports event held in the middle year of anOlympiccycle is the most visible demonstration of these sporting ties. The Games include standard multi-sports disciplines like athletics, swimming, gymnastics, weightlifting, bo xing, field hockey, and cycling, but also includes sports popular in the Commonwealth that are distinct to the Games such as netball, squash and lawn bowls. They are also more avowedly political than events like the Olympics, promoting what are seen as Commonwealth values; historically, a history of shared military endeavour was celebrated and promoted, parasport and disability sport is fully integrated, and the Commonwealth Games Federation has publicly backed the rights of LGBT people, despite the continuing criminalisation of homosexuality in many Commonwealth countries.

Literature

See also:Postcolonial literature,Migrant literature,andThe Journal of Commonwealth Literature

The shared history of British presence has produced a substantial body of writing in many languages, known as Commonwealth literature.The Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies (ACLALS) has 11 branches worldwide and holds an international conference every three years.

Ugandan-British novelistJennifer Nansubuga Makumbiwon theCommonwealth Short Story Prizein 2014.

In 1987, the Commonwealth Foundation established the annualCommonwealth Writers' Prize"to encourage and reward the upsurge of new Commonwealth fiction and ensure that works of merit reach a wider audience outside their country of origin". Prizes are awarded for the best book and best first book in the Commonwealth; there are also regional prizes for the best book and best first book in each of four regions. Although not officially affiliated with the Commonwealth, the prestigious annualMan Booker Prize,one of the highest honours in literature,used to be awarded only to authors from Commonwealth countries or former members such as Ireland and Zimbabwe. Since 2014, however, writers of any nationality have been eligible for the prize providing that they write originally in English and their novels are published by established publishers in the United Kingdom.Today, the Commonwealth Foundation awards the annualCommonwealth Short Story Prize.

There had been a few important works in English prior to 1950 from the thenBritish Empire.From 1950 on, a significant number of writers from the countries of the Commonwealth began gaining international recognition, including some who migrated to the United Kingdom.

South African writerOlive Schreiner.

South African writerOlive Schreiner's famous novelThe Story of an African Farmwas published in 1883 andNew ZealanderKatherine Mansfieldpublished her first collection of short stories,In a German Pension,in 1911. The first major novelist, writing in English, from theIndian sub-continent,R. K. Narayan,began publishing in England in the 1930s, thanks to the encouragement of English novelistGraham Greene.Caribbean writerJean Rhys's writing career began as early as 1928, though her most famous work,Wide Sargasso Sea,was not published until 1966. South Africa'sAlan Paton's famousCry, the Beloved Countrydates from 1948.Doris LessingfromSouthern Rhodesia,now Zimbabwe, was a dominant presence in the English literary scene, frequently publishing from 1950 on throughout the 20th century. She won theNobel Prize in Literaturein 2007.

Salman Rushdieis another post-Second World War writer from the former British colonies whopermanently settled in the United Kingdom.Rushdie achieved fame withMidnight's Children(1981). His most controversial novel,The Satanic Verses(1989), was inspired in part by the life of Muhammad.V. S. Naipaul(born 1932), born inTrinidad,was another immigrant, who wrote, amongst other things,A Bend in the River(1979). Naipaul won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2001.

Many other Commonwealth writers have achieved an international reputation for works in English, includingNigerian novelistChinua Achebe,and playwrightWole Soyinka.Soyinka won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1986, as did South African novelistNadine Gordimerin 1995. Other South African writers in English are novelistJ. M. Coetzee(Nobel Prize 2003) and playwrightAthol Fugard.Kenya's most internationally renowned author isNgũgĩ wa Thiong'o,who has written novels, plays and short stories in English. PoetDerek Walcott,fromSaint Luciain the Caribbean, was another Nobel Prize winner in 1992. An Australian,Patrick White,a major novelist in this period, whose first work was published in 1939, won in 1973. Other noteworthy Australian writers at the end of this period are poetLes Murray,and novelistPeter Carey,who is one of only four writers to have won theBooker Prizetwice.

Numerous academic journals cover the Commonwealth, includingThe Journal of Commonwealth Literature,theOxford University Commonwealth Law Journal,The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth HistoryandThe Round Table.Amongst literature written about the Commonwealth itself is Indian diplomat and former Commonwealth Deputy Secretary-GeneralKrishnan Srinivasan'sThe Rise, Decline and Future of the British Commonwealth(2005).

Political system

Parliament House,New Delhi,India. The Commonwealth Charter states the Commonwealth's commitment to democracy, and many Commonwealth countries use theWestminster system.

Lighting of ajubilee beaconforQueen Elizabeth II's Platinum Jubileein 2022 inWellington,New Zealand.

Whilst, due to their shared constitutional histories, most countries in the Commonwealth have outwardly similar legal and political systems, several of them – including Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Fiji, Gambia, Grenada, Nigeria, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Tanzania, Sierra Leone, Uganda – have experienced one-party rule, civilian or military dictatorships or destructive civil wars, and many still suffer from rampant corruption and poor governance despite the fact that the Commonwealth requires its members to be functioning democracies that respecthuman rightsand therule of law.The Commonwealth leadership was criticized for admitting Gabon as a member at the 2022 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Kigali, Rwanda – a country with poor human rights record - despite the fact that Gabon had been governed for 56 years by the kleptocratic Bongo family, until they were overthrown in a coup in 2023.

Most Commonwealth countries have the bicameralWestminster systemofparliamentarydemocracy. TheCommonwealth Parliamentary Associationfacilitates co-operation between legislatures across the Commonwealth, and theCommonwealth Local Government Forumpromotesgood governanceamongstlocal governmentofficials.Most Commonwealth members usecommon law,modelled onEnglish law.TheLatimer House Principlesadopted in 2003 reflect theseparation of powers.

Symbols

The Commonwealth has adopted a number of symbols that represent the association of its members. The English language is recognised as a symbol of the members' heritage; as well as being considered a symbol of the Commonwealth, recognition of it as "the means of Commonwealth communication" is a prerequisite for Commonwealth membership.

Theflag of the Commonwealthconsists of the symbol of the Commonwealth Secretariat, a gold globe surrounded by emanating rays, on a dark blue field; it was designed for thesecond CHOGMin 1973, and officially adopted on 26 March 1976. 1976 also saw the organisation agree to a common date on which to commemorateCommonwealth Day,the second Monday in March, having developed separately on different dates fromEmpire Daycelebrations.

Also to mark the 60th anniversary (Diamond Jubilee) of the Commonwealth in 2009, the Commonwealth Secretariat commissioned Paul Carroll to compose "The Commonwealth Anthem". The lyrics of the Anthem are taken from the 1948Universal Declaration of Human Rights.The Commonwealth has published the Anthem, performed by the Commonwealth Youth Orchestra, with and without an introductory narrative.

Recognition

In 2009, to mark the 60th anniversary of the founding of the Commonwealth, theRoyal Commonwealth Societycommissioned a poll of public opinion in seven of the member states: Australia, Canada, India, Jamaica, Malaysia, South Africa and the United Kingdom. It found that most people in these countries were largely ignorant of the Commonwealth's activities, aside from theCommonwealth Games,and indifferent toward its future. Support for the Commonwealth was twice as high in developing countries as in developed countries; it was lowest in the United Kingdom.

See also

• Anglosphere
• Commonwealth Caribbean
• Community of Portuguese Language Countries,an equivalent grouping ofPortuguese-speakingcountries and territories
• English-speaking world
• List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP
• La Francophonie,an association of countries where the French language and French culture are prominent
• Organization of Ibero-American States,consisting ofIberophonenations

Further reading

• Ashton, Sarah R. "British government perspectives on the Commonwealth, 1964–71: An asset or a liability?".Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History35.1 (2007): 73–94.
• Bloomfield, Valerie.Commonwealth Elections 1945–1970(1976).
• Cook, Chris and John Paxton.Commonwealth Political Facts(Macmillan, 1978).
• Hall, H. Duncan. "The genesis of the Balfour declaration of 1926".Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics1.3 (1962): 169–193.
• Holland, Robert F.Britain and the Commonwealth Alliance, 1918-39(Springer, 1981).
• Jebb, Richard(1905)."Imperial Organization".The Empire and the century.London: John Murray. pp. 332–348.
• Lloyd, Lorna.Diplomacy with a difference: the Commonwealth Office of High Commissioner, 1880–2006(Brill, 2007).
• McIntyre, W. David. "The strange death of dominion status".Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History27.2 (1999): 193–212.
• McIntyre, W. David.The commonwealth of nations: Origins and impact, 1869–1971(University of Minnesota Press, 1977); Comprehensive coverage giving London's perspective on political and constitutional relations with each possession.
• McIntyre, W. David.A Guide to the Contemporary Commonwealth,Palgrave, 2001.ISBN978-0-333-96310-4.
• McIntyre, W. David. "The Unofficial Commonwealth Relations Conferences, 1933–59: Precursors of the Tri-sector Commonwealth."Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History36.4 (2008): 591–614.
• Madden, Frederick and John Darwin, eds.The Dependent Empire, 1900–1948: Colonies, Protectorates, and the Mandates(1994), 908 pp.onlineArchived2 February 2017 at theWayback Machine
• Maitland, Donald. ed.Britain, the Commonwealth and Europe(Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2001)onlineArchived19 August 2018 at theWayback Machine
• Mansergh, NicholasThe Commonwealth in the World,University of Toronto Press,1982.ISBN978-0-8020-2492-3.
• Moore, R.J.Making the New Commonwealth,Clarendon Press, 1988.ISBN978-0-19-820112-0.
• Murphy, Philip.Monarchy and the End of Empire: The House of Windsor, the British Government, and the Postwar Commonwealth(Oxford UP 2013)doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199214235.001.0001
• Perkin, Harold. "Teaching the nations how to play: sport and society in the British empire and Commonwealth".International Journal of the History of Sport6.2 (1989): 145–155.
• Shaw, Timothy M.Commonwealth: Inter- and Non-State Contributions to Global Governance,Routledge, 2008.ISBN978-0-415-35120-1
• Srinivasan, Krishnan.The rise, decline and future of the British Commonwealth(Springer, 2005).
• Wheare, K. C.The Constitutional Structure of the Commonwealth,Clarendon Press, 1960.ISBN978-0-313-23624-2.
• Williams, Paul D. "Blair's Britain and the Commonwealth".The Round Table94.380 (2005): 381–391.
• Winks, Robin, ed.The Historiography of the British Empire-Commonwealth: Trends, Interpretations and Resources(1966)onlineArchived23 June 2017 at theWayback Machine

Primary sources

• Madden, Frederick, ed.The End of Empire: Dependencies since 1948: Select Documents on the Constitutional History of the British Empire and Commonwealth: The West Indies, British Honduras, Hong Kong, Fiji, Cyprus, Gibraltar, and the Falklands(2000)onlineArchived19 August 2018 at theWayback Machine596pp
• Madden, Frederick, and John Darwin, ed.The Dependent Empire: 1900–1948: Colonies, Protectorates, and Mandates(1963), 908pponlineArchived2 February 2017 at theWayback Machine
• Mansergh, Nicholas, ed.Documents and Speeches on Commonwealth Affairs, 1952–1962(1963), 804pponlineArchived19 August 2018 at theWayback Machine

External links

• Commonwealth Secretariat
• Commonwealth Foundation