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Infant

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(Redirected fromNewborn)
Several terms redirect here. For other uses, seeBaby (disambiguation),Infant (disambiguation),Newborn (disambiguation),andBabyhood (disambiguation).

A newborn infant being held by an adultman
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Aninfantorbabyis the very youngoffspringofhuman beings.Infant(from the Latin wordinfans,meaning 'baby' or 'child'[1]) is a formal or specialised synonym for the common termbaby.The terms may also be used to refer tojuvenilesof other organisms. Anewbornis, in colloquial use, an infant who is only hours, days, or up to one month old. In medical contexts, a newborn orneonate(from Latin,neonatus,newborn) is an infant in the first 28 days after birth;[2]the term applies topremature,full term,andpostmatureinfants.

Infants born prior to 37 weeks of gestation are called "premature",[3]those born between 39 and 40 weeks are "full term", those born through 41 weeks are "late term", and anything beyond 42 weeks is considered "post term".[4]

Before birth, the offspring is called afetus.The terminfantis typically applied to very young children under one year of age; however, definitions may vary and may include children up to two years of age. When a human child learns to walk, they are called atoddlerinstead.

Other uses

InBritish English,aninfant schoolis for children aged between four and seven.

As a legal term,infancyis more likeminority,and continues until a person reaches 18 years of age.[5]

Physical characteristics

A newborn's shoulders and hips are wide, the abdomen protrudes slightly, and the arms and legs are relatively long with respect to the rest of their body.

Eight-month-old infant; as a common feature, eyes are usually large in relation to the face.

A newborn's head is very large in proportion to the body, and thecraniumis enormous relative to his or her face. While the adult human skull is about one seventh of the total body length, the newborn's is about1⁄4.Normal head circumference for a full-term infant is 33–36 cm at birth.[6]At birth, many regions of the newborn's skull have not yet been converted to bone, leaving "soft spots" known asfontanels.The two largest are the diamond-shaped anterior fontanel, located at the top front portion of the head, and the smaller triangular-shaped posterior fontanel, which lies at the back of the head. Later in the child's life, these bones will fuse together in a natural process. A protein callednogginis responsible for the delay in an infant's skull fusion.[7]

Duringlabourand birth, the infant's skull changes shape to fit through thebirth canal,sometimes causing the child to be born with a misshapen or elongated head. It will usually return to normal on its own within a few days or weeks. Special exercises sometimes advised byphysiciansmay assist the process.

Hair

Thin brown hair of a one-year-old infant girl

Some newborns have a fine, downy body hair calledlanugo.It may be particularly noticeable on the back, shoulders, forehead, ears and face of premature infants. Lanugo disappears within a few weeks. Infants may be born with full heads of hair; others, particularlyCaucasianinfants, may have very fine hair or may even be bald. Amongst fair-skinned parents, this fine hair may be blonde, even if the parents are not. An infant's hair color and texture can change: red can give way to blond, curly can go straight, and thick, dark hair could reappear a lot sparser and lighter.[citation needed]Thescalpmay also be temporarilybruisedor swollen, especially in hairless newborns, and the area around the eyes may be puffy.

Length

Indeveloped countries,the average total body length of a newborn is 35.6–50.8 cm (14.0–20.0 in), although premature newborns may be much smaller.

The way to measure a baby's length is to lay the baby down and stretch a measuring tape from the top of the head to the bottom of the heel.

Weight

In developed countries, the averagebirth weightof a full-term newborn is approximately3.4 kg (7+1⁄2lb), and is typically in the range of 2.7–4.6 kg (6.0–10.1 lb).

Over the first 5–7 days following birth, the body weight of a term neonate decreases by 3–7%,[8]and is largely a result of the resorption and urination of the fluid that initially fills the lungs, in addition to a delay of often a few days beforebreastfeedingbecomes effective. After the first week, healthy term neonates should gain 10–20 grams/kg/day.[8]

Skin

A newborn infant, seconds afterdelivery.Amniotic fluidglistens on her skin, and theumbilical cordis still attached.

Immediately after birth, a newborn's skin is often grayish to dusky blue in color. As soon as the newborn begins to breathe, usually within a minute or two, the skin's color reaches its normal tone. Newborns are wet, covered in streaks of blood, and coated with a white substance known asvernix caseosa,which is hypothesised to act as anantibacterialbarrier. The newborn may also haveMongolian spots,various otherbirthmarks,or peeling skin, particularly on the wrists, hands, ankles, and feet.

Umbilical cord

Main article:Adaptation to extrauterine life

Theumbilical cordof a newborn is bluish-white in color. After birth, the umbilical cord is normally cut, leaving a 1–2 inch stub. The umbilical stub will dry out, shrivel, darken, and spontaneously fall off within about 3 weeks. This will later become a belly-button after it heals.

The umbilical cord contains three vessels: two arteries and one vein. The two arteries carry blood from the baby to the placenta while one vein carries blood back to the baby.

Genitals

A newborn'sgenitalsare enlarged and reddened, with male infants having an unusually largescrotum.The breasts may also be enlarged, even in male infants. This is caused by naturally occurring maternal hormones and is a temporary condition. Females (and even males) may actually discharge milk from their nipples (sometimes calledwitch's milk), or a bloody or milky-like substance from the vagina. In either case, this is considered normal and will disappear with time.

Care and feeding

Further information:Newborn care and safety
Further information:Infant bathing
Crying baby

Infantscryas a form of basic instinctive communication.[9]A crying infant may be trying to express a variety of feelings including hunger, discomfort, overstimulation, boredom, wanting something, or loneliness.

Infants arealtricialand are fully dependent on their mothers or an adult caretaker for an extended period of time.[10]Breastfeedingis the recommended method of feeding by all major infant health organizations.[11]If breastfeeding is not possible or desired, bottle feeding is done with expressed breast-milk or withinfant formula.Infants are born with a sucking reflex allowing them to extract the milk from thenipplesof the breasts or the nipple of thebaby bottle,as well as an instinctive behavior known asrootingwith which they seek out the nipple. Sometimes awet nurseis hired to feed the infant, although this is rare, especially in developed countries.

Adequate food consumption at an early age is vital for an infant's development. The foundations of optimum health, growth, and neurodevelopment across the lifespan are established in thefirst 1,000 daysof life.[12]From birth to six months, infants should consume only breast milk or an unmodified milk substitute. As an infant's diet matures, finger foods may be introduced as well as fruit, vegetables and small amounts of meat.[13]

As infants grow,food supplementscan be added. Many parents choose commercial, ready-madebaby foodsto supplement breast milk or formula for the child, while others adapt their usual meals for the dietary needs of their child. Whole cow'smilkcan be used at one year, but lower-fat milk is not recommended until the child is two to three years old. Weaning is the process through which breast milk is eliminated from the infant's diet through the introduction of solid foods in exchange for milk.[14]Until they are toilet-trained, infants in industrialized countries weardiapers.The transition from diapers to training pants is an important transition in the development of an infant/baby to that of a toddler. Children need more sleep than adults—up to 18 hours for newborn babies, with a declining rate as the child ages. Until babies learn to walk, they are carried in the arms, held in slings or baby carriers, or transported in baby carriages or strollers. Most industrialized countries have laws requiringchild safety seatsfor babies in motor vehicles.

Common care issues

Benefits of touch

A baby being hugged by asoldier

Experiments have been done with infants up to four months of age using both positive touch (stroking orcuddling) and negative touch (poking, pinching, or tickling). The infants who received the positive touch cried less often and vocalized and smiled more than the infants who were touched negatively. Infants who were the recipients of negative touch have also been linked with emotional and behavioral problems later in life. A lower amount of physical violence in adults has been discovered in cultures with greater levels of positive physical touching.[15]

Language development

An infant holding a space-themedbaby book

Caregivers of an infant are advised to pick up on the infant's facial expressions and mirror them. Reproducing and empathizing with their facial expressions enables infants to experience effectiveness and to recognize their own actions more easily (seemirror neurons). Exaggeratedly reproduced facial expressions and gestures are recommended, as they are clearer forms of expression. The baby's babbling should also be picked up and repeated. By imitating each other's sounds the first simple dialogues are initiated.[16]Accentuated pronunciation and melodicintonationmake it easier to recognize individual words in a sentence.[17]However, it is not advisable to use simplified "baby talk"(e.g." Did you 'ouch'? "instead of," Did you hurt yourself? ").[18]

Even if parents cannot yet understand infants'babbling,a timely response by parents to babbling leads to faster language acquisition.[19]This was confirmed by researchers who first studied mothers' behavior towards 8-month-old infants and later tested the infants' vocabulary when they were 15 months old.[20]A first important development of infants is the discovery that they can influence their parents through babbling (development of intentional communication).[20]Parents can encourage this by engaging with their infants in babbling. This in turn promotes further language development, as infants then turn to their parents more often.[19]

Previous studies have shown that the infant's speech is encouraged when parents, for example, smile in the infant's direction or touch the infant every time the infant looks at them and babbles. It also helps if parents respond to what they think their baby is saying (for example, giving a ball or commenting when the baby looks at the ball and babbles).[19]Responding to sounds produced when the baby looks at an object (object-directed vocalizations) thus provide an opportunity to learn the name of the object. In this way, babies also learn that sounds are associated with objects.[20]However, language development is only achieved if parents react positively (e.g. smile) in response to the infant's babbling. A high response rate without a connection to the infant's utterances does not lead to language promotion.[20]It is detrimental to language development if a mother instead tries to divert the infant's attention to something else.[21]

Sleep

Main article:Infant sleep
A sleeping infant

A 2018 review analysed 146 studies on infant sleep behavior and listed several factors that show an effect on sleep duration and the number of night awakenings.[22]However, research has indicated that frequent wakings are protective of SIDS.[23]

Infant sleep is not linear, ebbing and flowing with developmental milestones and age.[24]

The National Sleep Foundation gives a rough recommendation on sleep hours, that commonly decreases with increasing age.[25]

Maternal sensitivity

Maternal sensitivityplays a particular role in the relationship with the infant and for favorable emotional development. This means being attentive to the infant's behavioral expressions, not misinterpreting the infant's expressions because of one's own moods, reacting immediately to the situation and finding a response that is appropriate to the context and the expressed needs. A secureattachmentis promoted through empathetic and adequate as well as prompt responses.[26][27][16]In accordance with their basic needs, infants show an inborn behavior of seeking closeness to the mother – or to another primary caregiver – and thus in turn foster an attachment. When separated from the mother, infants protest by crying and by body movements.

Other

An infant from Uganda playing with stoves

Wearinghas a calming effect on infants. A 2013 study showed that infants placed in acradlecried and kicked more often and had anincreased heart rate(so the infants were stressed), while those picked up and carried by the mother while walking around calmed down significantly. The effect of being held motionless in the arm was intermediate between that of being carried around and that of being put down.[28]That carrying (e.g., in ababy sling) makes infants more content and makes them cry less had already been shown in a randomized study in 1986.[29]

For infant feeding,breastfeedingis recommended by all major infant health organizations.[11]

Manyairlinesrefuse boarding for all babies aged under 7 days (for domestic flights) or 14 days for international flights.Asiana Airlinesallows babies to board international flights at 7 days of age.Garuda Indonesiadisallows all babies under the age of 14 days to board any flights.

Delta Air Linesallows infants to travel when they are less than 7 days old when they present a physician travel approval letter. Skywest will not allow an infant less than 8 days old on board.[30]

Behaviour

Emotional development

Eight-month-oldtwin sisters

Attachment theory is primarily anevolutionaryandethologicaltheory whereby the infant or childseeks proximityto aspecified attachment figurein situations of alarm or distress for the purpose of survival.[31]The forming of attachments is considered to be the foundation of the infant/child's capacity to form and conduct relationships throughout life. Attachment is not the same as love or affection although they often go together. Attachment and attachmentbehaviorstend to develop between the age of 6 months and 3 years. Infants becomeattachedto adults who are sensitive and responsive insocial interactionswith the infant, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some time. Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment, which in turn lead to 'internal working models' which will guide the individual's feelings, thoughts, and expectations in later relationships.[32]There are a number ofattachment 'styles'namely 'secure', 'anxious-ambivalent', 'anxious-avoidant', (all 'organized') and 'disorganized', some of which are more problematic than others. A lack of attachment or a seriously disrupted capacity for attachment could potentially amount to serious disorders.[33]

Infants develop distinct relationships to their mothers, fathers, siblings, and non-familial caregivers.[34]Beside the dyadic attachment relationships also a good quality of the triadic relationships (mother – father – infant) is important for infant mental health development.[35][36]

Response to sounds

Infants respond to the sound of snake hissing, angry voices of adults, the crackling sound of a fire, thunder, and the cries of other infants. They have a drop in heart rate, their eyes blinking, increased turning toward the speakers or parent, all of these indicating that they were paying more attention. This is believed to be an evolutionary response to danger. Babies' ability to accurately locate sounds is refined during their first year.[37]

Health issues

Diseases

Further information:Neonatology

The infant is undergoing manyadaptations to extrauterine life,and its physiological systems, such as theimmune system,are far from fully developed. Potential diseases of concern during the neonatal period include:

Mortality

Main article:Infant mortality
An infant being immunized inBangladesh

Infant mortality is the death of an infant in the first year of life, often expressed as the number of deaths per 1,000 live births (infant mortality rate). Major causes of infant mortality includedehydration,infection,congenital malformationandSIDS.[38]

Thisepidemiologicalindicator is recognized as a very important measure of the level of health care in a country because it is directly linked with thehealthstatus of infants, children, and pregnant women as well as access to medical care, socioeconomic conditions, andpublic healthpractices.[39][40]

There is a positive relationship between national wealth and good health. The rich and industrialized countries of the world, prominentlyCanada,the United Kingdom, the United States, andJapan,spend a large proportion of their wealthy budget on the health care system. As, a result, their health care systems are very sophisticated, with many physicians, nurses, and other health care experts servicing the population. Thus, infant mortality is low. On the other hand, a country such as Mexico, which spends disproportionately less of its budget on healthcare, suffers from high mortality rates. This is because the general population is likely to be less healthy.[41]In the U.S., infant mortality rates are especially high in minority groups. For instance, non-Hispanic black women have an infant mortality rate of 13.63 per 1,000 live births whereas in non-Hispanic white women it was much lower at a rate of 5.76 per 1,000 live births.[42]The average infant mortality rate in the U.S. is 6.8 per 1,000 live births.[43]

Babyhood

Babyhood is a critical period inpersonality developmentwhen the foundations of adult personality are laid.[44]In contrasttoddleris used to denote a baby that has achieved relative independence, in moving about, and feeding.[45]

References

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  44. ^Human Growth Development and Learning(2004 ed.), 2004, p. 50,ISBN971-23-3911-4,... is mainly through prespeech forms of crying, babbling, gesturing, and emotional expressions. In babyhood, understanding comes from a combination of sensory exploration, motor manipulation, and, toward the end of babyhood, from questions to answers. Babyhood is regarded as a critical period in personality development because it is the time when the foundations of adult personality are laid.
  45. ^Developmental Psychology,1998, p. 121,ISBN971-23-2463-X,However, Hurlock (1982) cites that infancy, compared to babyhood, is characterized by extreme helplessness. The word baby may likewise suggest a helpless individual; hence, the word toddler has been increasingly used to denote a baby that has achieved enough control of his body to permit relative independence, such as' moving about, feeding himself, etc. Characteristics of Babyhood The most important characteristics of babyhood are listed below: 1. It is the true foundation age..
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Preceded by Stages of human development
Infancy 		Succeeded by
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