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Niger Delta

Coordinates:05°19′34″N06°28′15″E/ 5.32611°N 6.47083°E/5.32611; 6.47083
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused withInner Niger Delta.
Map of Nigeria numerically showing states typically considered part of the Niger Delta region: 1.Abia,2.Akwa Ibom,3.Bayelsa,4.Cross River,5.Delta,6.Edo,7.Imo,8.Ondo,9.Rivers
View of the Niger Delta from space (north/land at top).

TheNiger Deltais thedeltaof theNiger Riversitting directly on theGulf of Guineaon theAtlantic OceaninNigeria.[1][2]It is located within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, which include: all six states from theSouth Southgeopolitical zone, one state (Ondo) fromSouth Westgeopoliticalzone and two states (AbiaandImo) fromSouth Eastgeopolitical zone.

The Niger Delta is a very densely populated region sometimes called theOil Riversbecause it was once a major producer ofpalm oil.[3]The area was the British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, when it was expanded and became theNiger Coast Protectorate.

The delta is a petroleum-rich region and has been thecenter of international concernover extensive pollution which is often used as an example ofecocide.[4][5][6][7]The principal cause is majoroil spillsbymultinational corporationsof thepetroleum industry.[8][9]

Geography

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The Niger Delta, as now defined officially by the Nigerian government, extends over 70,000 km2(27,000 sq mi) and makes up 7.5% of Nigeria's land mass. Historically and cartographically, it consists of present-dayBayelsa,Delta,andRivers States.In 2000, however,Obasanjo'sregime includedAbia,Akwa-Ibom,Cross River State,Edo,ImoandOndoStates in the region.[3]

The Niger Delta and the South-South geopolitical zone (which contains six of the states in the Niger Delta) are two different entities. The Niger Delta separates theBight of Beninfrom theBight of Bonnywithin the largerGulf of Guinea.[10]

Demographics[8]

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Some 31 million people[11]of more than 40 ethnic groups including theIgbo,Abua,Bini,Itsekiri,Efik,Esan,Ibibio,Annang,Oron,Ijaw,Isoko,Urhobo,Kalabari,Yoruba,Okrika,Ogoni,Epie-Atissa people andObolo people,are among the inhabitants of the political Niger Delta, speaking about 250 different dialects. Language groups spoken in the Niger Delta include theIgboid languages,Ijaw languages,Ibibio-Efik languages,Itsekiri language,Central Delta languages,Edoid languages,andYoruboid Languages.[12]

History

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Colonial period

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The area was theBritishOil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893 when it was expanded and became the Niger Coast Protectorate. The core Niger Delta later became a part of theeastern region of Nigeria,which came into being in 1951 (one of the three regions, and later one of the four regions). The majority of the people were those from the colonial Calabar, Itsekiri and Ogoja divisions, the present-dayOgoja,Itsekiri,Annang,Ibibio,Oron,Efik,IjawandOgonipeople. TheNational Council of Nigeria and Cameroon(NCNC) was the ruling political party of the region. The NCNC later became the National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decided to separate from Nigeria. The ruling party of eastern Nigeria did not seek to preclude the separation and even encouraged it. The then Eastern Region had the third, fourth and fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups in the country, which are theIgbo,IbibioandIjaw.

In 1953, the Old Eastern region had a major crisis when professorEyo Itawas expelled from office by the majority Igbo tribe of the Old Eastern region. Ita, anEfikman fromCalabar,was one of the pioneer nationalists for Nigerian independence. The minorities in the region, theIbibio,Annang,Efik,IjawandOgoja,were situated along the southeastern coast and in the delta region and demanded a state of their own, the Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. The struggle for the creation of the COR state continued and was a major issue concerning the status of minorities in Nigeria during debates in Europe on Nigerian independence. As a result of this crisis, Professor Eyo Ita left the NCNC to form a new political party called theNational Independence Partywhich was one of the five Nigerian political parties represented at the conferences on Nigerian Constitution and Independence.[12]

Post-colonial period

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In 1961, another major crisis occurred when the then-eastern region of Nigeria allowed present-day southwesternCameroonto separate from Nigeria (from the region of what is nowAkwa Ibomand Cross River states) through a plebiscite while the leadership of the Northern Region took the necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon in Nigeria, in present-dayAdamawaandTarabastates. The aftermath of the1961 plebiscitehas led to a dispute between Cameroon and Nigeria over the small territory ofBakassi.

A new phase of the struggle saw the declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic byIsaac Adaka Boroduring Nigerian president Ironsi's administration, just before theNigerian Civil War.[13]Also just before the Nigerian civil war, Southeastern State of Nigeria was created (also known asSoutheastern Nigeriaor Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), which had the colonial Calabar division, and colonialOgojadivision.Rivers Statewas also created. Southeastern State and River State became two states for the minorities of the old eastern region, and the majority Igbo of the old eastern region had a state called East Central State. Southeastern State was renamed Cross River State and was later split intoCross River Stateand Akwa Ibom State. Rivers State was later divided into Rivers State and Bayelsa State.

Nigerian Civil War

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Niger Delta people suffered heavily with the great loss of lives and properties, hunger and starvation, and sustained many deaths during 1967–1970Nigerian Civil War,also known as the Biafran War, in which the eastern region declared an independent state named Biafra that was eventually defeated.[14][15][16]During this period, schools were shut down completely, and gunfire became a daily occurrence.

Non-violent resistance

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See also:Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People

Following the civil war, local communities increasingly demanded social andenvironmental justicefrom the federal government, withKen Saro Wiwaand theOgoni tribeas the lead figures for this phase of the struggle. Cohesive oil protests became most pronounced in 1990 with the publication of the Ogoni Bill of Rights. Indigenous people protested against the lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, and hospitals, in the region, despite all the oil wealth created. They also complained about environmental pollution and the destruction of their land and rivers by foreign oil companies. Ken Saro Wiwa and nine other oil activists from Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) were arrested and killed underSani Abachain 1995.[17]

Recent armed conflict

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Main article:Conflict in the Niger Delta

When long-held concerns about loss of control over resources to the oil companies were voiced by theIjaw peoplein theKaiama Declarationin 1998, the Nigerian government sent troops to occupy the Bayelsa and Delta states. Soldiers opened fire with rifles, machine guns, and tear gas, killing at least three protesters and arresting twenty-five more.[18]Since then, local indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries and pipelines in the region has increased in frequency and militancy. Recently[when?]foreign employees ofShell,the primary corporation operating in the region, were taken hostage by local people. Such activities have also resulted in greater governmental intervention in the area and the mobilization of theNigerian ArmyandState Security Serviceinto the region, resulting in violence and human rights abuses. In April 2006, a bomb exploded near an oil refinery in the Niger Delta region, a warning against Chinese expansion in the region. TheMovement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta(MEND) stated: "We wish to warn the Chinese government and its oil companies to steer well clear of the Niger Delta. The Chinese government, by investing in stolen crude, places its citizens in our line of fire."[19]

Government and private initiatives to develop the Niger Delta region have been introduced recently.[when?]These include the Niger Delta Development Commission, a government initiative, and the Development Initiative, a community developmentnon-governmental organizationbased inPort Harcourt.Uz and Uz Transnational, a company with a strong commitment to the Niger Delta, has introduced ways of developing the poor in the Niger Delta, especially in Rivers State. In September 2008, MEND released a statement proclaiming that their militants had launched an "oil war"throughout the Niger Delta against both, pipelines and oil-production facilities, and the Nigerian soldiers that protect them. Both MEND and the Nigerian Government claim to have inflicted heavy casualties on one another.[20]In August 2009, the Nigerian government granted amnesty to the militants; many militants subsequently surrendered their weapons in exchange for a presidential pardon, rehabilitation programme, and education.

Sub-regions

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Western Niger Deltaconsists of the western section of coastal South-South Nigeria which includes Delta, and the southernmost parts of Edo, and Ondo States. The western (or Northern) Niger Delta is a heterogeneous society with several ethnic groups including theItsekiri,Urhobo,Isoko,Ijaw(or Izon) andUkwuani;theBini,Esan,Auchi, Esako, oral, igara andAfenmaiin Edo State; and the Ilaje Yoruba in Ondo State. Their livelihoods are primarily based on fishing and farming. History has it that the Western Niger was controlled by chiefs of the four primary ethnic groups the Itsekiri, Isoko, Ijaw, and Urhobo with whom the British government had to sign separate "Treaties of Protection" in their formation of "Protectorates" that later became southern Nigeria.

Central Niger Deltaconsists of the central section of coastal South-South Nigeria which includes Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia and Imo States. The Central Niger Delta region has theIjaw(including the Nembe-Brass, Ogbia,Kalabari people,Ibani of Opobo & Bonny, Abua,Okrika,Engenni andAndoniclans), theOgoni people(Khana, Gokana, Tai and Eleme), the Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye and Ndoki in Rivers State.

Eastern Niger Deltaconsists of Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State. It has the homogeneousAnnang,EfikandIbibiopeople.

Nigerian oil

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Main article:Petroleum industry in Nigeria

Nigeria has becomeWest Africa's biggest producer of petroleum. Some 2 million barrels (320,000 m3) per day are extracted in the Niger Delta, with an estimated 38 billion barrels of reserves.[21]The first oil operations in the region began in the 1950s and were undertaken by multinational corporations, which provided Nigeria with necessary technological and financial resources to extract oil.[22]Since 1975, the region has accounted for more than 75% of Nigeria'sexportearnings.[23]Together oil and natural gas extraction comprise "97 per cent of Nigeria's foreign exchange revenues".[24]More than 70% of thenatural gasextracted in oil wells in the delta is immediately burned, orflared,into the air at a rate of approximately 70 million m3per day.[25]This is equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption and forms the largest single source ofgreenhouse gas emissionson the planet.[citation needed]In 2003, about 99% of excess gas was flared in the Niger Delta,[26]although this value has fallen to 11% in 2010.[27](See alsogas flaring volumes). The biggest gas flaring company is the Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture that is majority-owned by the Nigerian government. In Nigeria, "...despite regulations introduced 20 years ago to outlaw the practice, most associated gas is flared, causing local pollution and contributing to climate change."[28]The environmental devastation associated with the industry and the lack of distribution of oil wealth have been the source and/or key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements and inter-ethnic conflicts in the region, including recent guerrilla activity by MEND.

In September 2012Eland Oil & Gaspurchased a 45% interest in OML 40, with its partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from the Shell Group. They intend to recommission the existing infrastructure and restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m3) of oil per day with a target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m3) of oil per day within four years.

Oil revenue derivation

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Oil revenue allocation has been the subject of much contention well before Nigeria gained its independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, owing to theFirst Republic'shigh degree of regional autonomy, and as low as 10% during the military dictatorships.

Oil revenue sharing formula
Year Federal State* Local Special Projects Derivation Formula**
1958 40% 60% 0% 0% 50%
1968 80% 20% 0% 0% 10%
1977 75% 22% 3% 0% 10%
1982 55% 32.5% 10% 2.5% 10%
1989 50% 24% 15% 11% 10%
1995 48.5% 24% 20% 7.5% 13%
2001 48.5% 24% 20% 7.5% 13%

* State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation.

**The derivation formula refers to the percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state.World Bank Report

Media

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The documentary filmSweet Crude,which premiered April 2009 at the Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, tells the story of Nigeria's Niger Delta.[29]

Environmental issues

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The Niger Delta is a region of unparalleled ecological richness, characterized by its intricate network of waterways, lush mangrove forests, and diverse ecosystems. However, the serene beauty of this landscape has been damaged by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Over the years, the Niger Delta has experienced a series of devastating oil spills, primarily caused by industrial activities related to the extraction and transportation of oil and gas. Due to this high amount of spills, the Niger Delta is considered one of the most polluted areas on Earth.[30]These spills have inflicted severe and continuous damage on the delicate balance of the region's ecosystems. They impact both the environment and the livelihoods of the communities that depend on its resources.

Two spills in 2008 and 2009 have been the largest and most harmful by far, collectively lasting for almost 150 days and causing flora death over a span of 393 km2. The extensive network of tidal rivers and mangrove swamps makes it even easier for the oil to spread quickly, and the delta becomes a sink, trapping the oil that is not removed.[31]The spills came from a pipeline operated by Shell Petroleum Development Company. In addition to smaller spills that took place over the years 2006–2019, it is estimated that a total of 92,479,170 liters (or 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil were released into the studied area.[31]

Since then, following spills have continued to exacerbate the ecological damage. The exact impact of spills like these is hard to know due to the fact that traditional field studies are nearly impossible in this region. However, techniques such as the normalized difference vegetation index have been successful in measuring the impact of oil spills on the river's plant health. Additionally, independently collected field samples have confirmed the presence of hydrocarbon pollutants in high concentrations in the impacted areas.[31]

Oil and gas pollution/spills greatly increase the possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil are particularly concerning due to their link to the health problems caused by exposure.[32]This includes organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene,[33]as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium and cadmium.[citation needed]In fact, according to the Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks, more than 1300 different chemicals can be put into the environment as a result of oil and gas exploration.[34]Then, humans come in contact with these harmful substances through eating contaminated food as well as breathing in the air pollution.[35]Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are especially concerning because of their persistence in the environment. Even in low amounts, prolonged exposure can cause serious health issues such as cancer and other chronic illnesses.[35]In general, the harmful pollutants emitted from oil spills and other pollution include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, and infertility.[35]Less deadly, but still serious, health problems include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes on face and neck, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, and diarrhea are common issues caused from oil spills.[36]

Collectively, more than 1 million people live in the area that has been contaminated by oil/gas pollution. This population is especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses because of their pre-existing low life expectancy and large ratio of young people.[31]Additionally, a 2006 report done by the United Nations Development Programme says “The Niger Delta is a region suffering from administrative neglect, crumbling social infrastructure and services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth and squalor, and endemic conflict,".[37]These factors make it increasingly harder for the local communities to deal with the negative effects caused by foreign oil exploration.

The people affected by oil spills in the Niger Delta are diverse communities residing in the region. Their lives are intricately connected to the natural environment. These communities, often made up of indigenous groups, rely on the Niger Delta's resources for their food, water, livelihoods, and cultural practices. The impact of oil spills on these communities is multi-faceted and extends beyond health problems. Fishing and agriculture are central to the livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills contaminate water sources and farmlands, severely affecting fish stocks and crops. This disruption can lead to food shortages and economic hardship for those dependent on these activities.[38]

Another facet of the people's livelihoods is their culture. The Niger Delta's people have strong spiritual and cultural ties to their environment. The harm inflicted on their land and waterways caused by oil spills deeply disrupts sacred sites and interferes with their cultural practices. The loss of these cultural elements contributes to a sense of displacement and identity crisis among the affected groups/communities.[39]

Additionally, when communities fight back against the oil industries as an act of protest, violence is often perpetuated. Since the 1990s there has been continuous violence in an effort to give local communities control of the oil in the delta. These acts of violence include the kidnapping of foreign oil workers and holding them for ransom, vandalization, and even the blowing up of oil installations.[39]

Notes

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  1. ^C. Michael Hogan,"Niger River", in M. McGinley (ed.),Encyclopedia of EarthArchived2013-04-20 at theWayback Machine,Washington, DC: National Council for Science and Environment, 2013
  2. ^Umoh, Unyime U.; Li, Li; Wang, Jun gian; Kauluma, Ndamononghenda; Asuquo, Francis E.; Akpan, Ekom R. (August 2022). "Glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether signatures in tropical mesotidal estuary sediments of Qua Iboe River, Gulf of Guinea".Organic Geochemistry.170:104461.Bibcode:2022OrGeo.17004461U.doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2022.104461.S2CID249615285.
  3. ^abOtoabasi, Akpan (2011).The Niger Delta Question and the peace plan.Spectrum Books.
  4. ^"'Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction ".NBC News.2021-04-07.Retrieved2023-07-06.
  5. ^"Fighting ecocide in Nigeria".theecologist.org.5 February 2014.Retrieved2023-07-06.
  6. ^"UNPO: Ogoni: An Ecocide in the Making?".unpo.org.Retrieved2023-07-06.
  7. ^"How an ecocide law could prevent another Nigerian oil disaster".The Guardian.2011-08-22.ISSN0261-3077.Retrieved2023-07-06.
  8. ^abAghalino, S.O (2004).Combating the Niger Delta Crisis: an appraisal of Federal Government response to Anti-Oil protect in Niger Delta, 1958-2002.Maiduguri journal of Historical studies.
  9. ^Dakolo, Bubaraye (2021).The Riddle of the Oil Thief.Lagos: Purple Shelves. pp. 117–170.ISBN9789789889907.
  10. ^Akpan, D. (2006).Oil Exploration and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. A paper presented at the first regional conference.
  11. ^CRS Report for Congress, Nigeria: Current Issues. Updated 30 January 2008.
  12. ^ab"The Niger Delta – Niger Delta Budget Monitoring Group".Retrieved2023-05-24.
  13. ^Writer, Guest (2018-05-22)."The revolutionist as the true national knight: Retelling the tale of Isaac Boro 50 years after".TheCable.Retrieved2024-07-04.
  14. ^"Chronology of Important Events in the Nigerian Civil War",The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970,Princeton University Press, 2015-12-31, pp. xv–xx,doi:10.1515/9781400871285-003,ISBN978-1-4008-7128-5
  15. ^Heerten, Lasse; Moses, A. Dirk (2017-07-06), "The Nigeria-Biafra War",Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide,Routledge, pp. 3–43,doi:10.4324/9781315229294-1,ISBN978-1-315-22929-4
  16. ^Ekwe-Ekwe, Herbert. (1991).The Biafra War: Nigeria and the aftermath.Lewiston, New York:Edwin Mellen Press.ISBN0-88946-235-6.OCLC476261625.
  17. ^Strutton, Laine (2014).The New Mobilization from Below: Women's Oil Protests in the Niger Delta, Nigeria(Thesis).ProQuest1666393541.
  18. ^"State of Emergency Declared in the Niger Delta".Human Rights Watch. 1998-12-30.Archivedfrom the original on 2012-08-05.Retrieved2018-01-19.
  19. ^Ian Taylor,"China's environmental footprint in Africa"Archived2007-02-23 at theWayback Machine,China Dialogue,2 February 2007.
  20. ^"Nigeria militants warn of oil war"Archived2008-09-15 at theWayback Machine,BBC News, 14 September 2008.
  21. ^Isumonah, V. Adelfemi (2013). "Armed Society in the Niger Delta".Armed Forces & Society.39(2): 331–358.doi:10.1177/0095327x12446925.S2CID110566551.
  22. ^Pearson, Scott R. (1970).Petroleum and the Nigerian Economy.Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 13.ISBN0-8047-0749-9.
  23. ^Akpeninor, James Ohwofasa (2012-08-28).Giant in the Sun: Echoes of Looming Revolution?.AuthorHouse.ISBN978-1-4772-1868-6.
  24. ^Nigeria: Petroleum Pollution and Poverty in the Niger Delta.United Kingdom: Amnesty International Publications International Secretariat, 2009, p. 10.
  25. ^"A review of the effects of gas flaring on the Niger Delta".ResearchGate.July 4, 2024.
  26. ^"Nigeria's First National Communication Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change"(PDF).UNFCC.Nov 2003. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 15 January 2009.Retrieved24 January2009.
  27. ^Global Gas Flaring reduction, The World BankArchived2012-03-01 at theWayback Machine,"Estimated Flared Volumes from Satellite Data, 2006–2010."
  28. ^"Gas Flaring in Nigeria"(PDF).Friends of the Earth.October 2004.Archived(PDF)from the original on 25 February 2009.Retrieved24 January2009.
  29. ^"Sweet Crude: A New Documentary on the Niger Delta by Sandy Cioffi".sweetcrudemovie.Retrieved2023-05-24.
  30. ^Anejionu, Obinna Chukwubuikem Diony; Blackburn, George Alan; Whyatt, J. Duncan (4 March 2014)."Satellite survey of gas flares: development and application of a Landsat-based technique in the Niger Delta".International Journal of Remote Sensing.35(5): 1900–1925.Bibcode:2014IJRS...35.1900A.doi:10.1080/01431161.2013.879351.S2CID53705868.
  31. ^abcdObida, Christopher B.; Blackburn, George A.; Whyatt, James D.; Semple, Kirk T. (25 June 2021)."Counting the cost of the Niger Delta's largest oil spills: Satellite remote sensing reveals extensive environmental damage with >1million people in the impact zone".Science of the Total Environment.775:145854.Bibcode:2021ScTEn.775n5854O.doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145854.S2CID233538622.
  32. ^Ugochukwu, Uzochukwu C.; Ochonogor, Alfred; Jidere, Chika M.; Agu, Chizoba; Nkoloagu, Frida; Ewoh, John; Okwu-Delunzu, Virginia U. (1 June 2018)."Exposure risks to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by humans and livestock (cattle) due to hydrocarbon spill from petroleum products in Niger-delta wetland".Environment International.115:38–47.Bibcode:2018EnInt.115...38U.doi:10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.010.PMID29547867.S2CID3902367.
  33. ^Philibert, Danielle A.; Lyons, Danielle; Philibert, Clara; Tierney, Keith B. (10 January 2019)."Field-collected crude oil, weathered oil and dispersants differentially affect the early life stages of freshwater and saltwater fishes".Science of the Total Environment.647:1148–1157.Bibcode:2019ScTEn.647.1148P.doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.052.PMID30180323.S2CID52156999.
  34. ^Bertollini, Roberto; Teresa, Borges; Pim, deVoogt; Peter, Hoet (30 November 2018). "OPINION ON the public health impacts and risks resulting from onshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation in the EU".Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks SCHEER.
  35. ^abcAfshar-Mohajer, Nima; Fox, Mary A.; Koehler, Kirsten (1 March 2019)."The human health risk estimation of inhaled oil spill emissions with and without adding dispersant".Science of the Total Environment.654:924–932.Bibcode:2019ScTEn.654..924A.doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.110.PMID30453262.S2CID53946118.
  36. ^Nriagu, Jerome; Udofia, Emilia A.; Ekong, Ibanga; Ebuk, Godwin (March 2016)."Health Risks Associated with Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria".International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.13(3): 346.doi:10.3390/ijerph13030346.PMC4809009.PMID27007391.
  37. ^Nations, United (1 January 2006)."Human Development Report".United Nations.
  38. ^Osuagwu, Eze Simpson; Olaifa, Eseoghene (25 October 2018)."Effects of oil spills on fish production in the Niger Delta".PLOS ONE.13(10): e0205114.Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1305114O.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0205114.PMC6201865.PMID30359365.
  39. ^abAghalino, S.O. (February 2011)."Oil and Cultural Crisis: The Case of the Niger Delta".Africana.5(1): 15.RetrievedDecember 14,2023.

References

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