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African French

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This article is about the French language spoken in Africa. For immigrants to France from Africa, seeArabs in FranceandBlack people in France.
African French
français africain
A private pharmacy inAbidjan,Ivory Coast
RegionAfrica
Native speakers
200 million (mostly non-native speakers) (2024)[1][2][3]
Early forms
Dialects
  • West African French
  • Maghreb French
  • Djiboutian French
  • Indian Ocean French
  • Eastern African French
Latin(French Alpha bet)
French Braille
Official status
Official language in
Countries and territories
Language codes
ISO 639-3–
IETFfr-002
Francophone Africa. The countries coloured dark blue had a population of 487.6 million in 2023.[4]In 2050 their population is forecast to reach between 870.1 million[5]and 878.5 million.[4]
2024 situation in Africa of the French Language as Official Language, and Native Language regions.
Part ofa serieson the
French language
History
Grammar
Orthography
Phonology
A man fromLabé,Guinea,speakingPularand West African French

African French(French:français africain) is the generic name of thevarietiesof theFrench languagespoken by an estimated 167 million people inAfricain 2023 or 51% of the French-speaking population of the world[6][7][8]spread across 34 countries and territories.[Note 1]This includes those who speak French as afirstorsecond languagein these 34 African countries and territories (some of which are not Francophone, but merely non-Francophone members or observers of theOrganisation internationale de la Francophonieor OIF), but it does not include French speakers living in other African countries. Africa is thus the continent with the most French speakers in the world,[9][10]and African French speakers now form a large and integral part of theFrancophonie.

In Africa, French is often spoken alongside Indigenous languages, but in a number of urban areas (in particular inCentral Africaand in the ports located on theGulf of Guinea) it has become a first language, such as in the region ofAbidjan,Ivory Coast,[11]in the urban areas ofDouala,YaoundéinCameroon,inLibreville,Gabon,andAntananarivo[12]

In some countries, it is a first language among some socialclassesof the population, such as inAlgeria,Tunisia,Morocco,andMauritania,where French is a first language among theupper classesalong with Arabic (many people in the upper classes aresimultaneous bilingualsin Arabic/French), but only a second language among the general population.[13]

In each of the Francophone African countries, French is spoken with local variations in pronunciation and vocabulary.

List of countries in Africa by French proficiency

[edit]

French proficiency in African countries according to theOrganisation internationale de la Francophonie(OIF).[14][15][a]

Countries Total population French speaking population Percentage of the population that speaks French Year
Algeria 45,350,141 14,903,789 32.86% 2022
Benin 12,784,728 4,306,099 33.68% 2022
Burkina Faso 22,102,838 5,403,610 24.45% 2022
Burundi 12,624,845 1,073,506 8.50% 2022
Cabo Verde 567,676 61,461 10.83% 2022
Cameroon 27,911,544 11,490,652 41.17% 2022
Central African Republic 5,016,678 1,435,061 28.61% 2022
Chad 17,413,574 2,249,023 12.92% 2022
Comoros 907,411 237,140 26.13% 2022
Congo 5,797,801 3,518,464 60.69% 2022
Côte d'Ivoire 27,742,301 9,324,605 33.61% 2022
Djibouti 1,016,098 508,049 50% 2022
DR Congo 95,240,782 72,110,821 74%[16] 2022
Egypt 106,156,692 3,204,706 3.02% 2022
Equatorial Guinea 1,496,673 432,705 28.91% 2022
Gabon 2,331,532 1,865,225 80%[17] 2023
Gambia 2,558,493 511,699 20.00% 2022
Ghana 32,395,454 273,795 0.85% 2022
Guinea 13,865,692 3,776,660 27.24% 2022
Guinea-Bissau 2,063,361 317,351 15.38% 2022
Madagascar 29,178,075 7,729,277 26.49% 2022
Mali 21,473,776 3,702,660 17.24% 2022
Mauritania 4,901,979 655,948 13.38% 2022
Mauritius 1,274,720 926,053 72.65% 2022
Morocco 37,772,757 13,456,845 35.63% 2022
Mozambique 33,089,463 98,822 0.30% 2022
Niger 26,083,660 3,362,988 12.89% 2022
Rwanda 13,600,466 792,815 5.83% 2022
Sao Tome and Principe 227,679 45,984 20.20% 2022
Senegal 17,653,669 4,640,365 26.29% 2022
Seychelles 99,433 52,699 53.00% 2022
Togo 8,680,832 3,554,266 40.94% 2022
Tunisia 12,046,656 6,321,391 52.47% 2022

Varieties

[edit]

There are many different varieties of African French, but they can be broadly grouped into five categories:[18]

  1. The French variety spoken inCentral AfricaandWest Africa– spoken altogether by about 97 million people in 2018, as either afirstorsecond language.[19]
  2. The French variety spoken byBerbersandMaghrebisinNorth-west Africa(seeMaghreb French), which has about 33 million first and second language speakers in 2018.[19]
  3. The French variety spoken in theComoro Islands(theComorosandMayotte) andMadagascar,which have 5.6 million first and second language speakers in 2018.[19]
  4. The French variety spoken byCreolesin theMascarene Islands(MauritiusandRéunion) andSeychelles,which has around 1.75 million first and second language speakers in 2018.[19]The French spoken in this region is not to be confused with theFrench-based creole languages,which are also spoken in the area.
  5. The French variety spoken inDjiboutiin theHorn of Africa,which has about 0.5 million first and second language speakers in 2018.[19]

All the African French varieties differ fromStandard French,both in terms of pronunciation and vocabulary, but the formal African French used in education, media and legal documents is based on standard French vocabulary.

Alcohol seller inKara,Togo,with sign in French; she uses the phraseSoyez les bienvenus( "Be welcome" ), considered anarchaic phraseinMetropolitan France;some terms and words persist in use in Africa after falling out of use in France.

In the colonial period, a vernacular form ofcreoleFrench known asPetit nègre( "littlenegro") was also present in West Africa. The term has since, however, become a pejorative term for" poorly spoken "African French.

The difficulty linguists have in describing African French comes from variations, such as the "pure" language used by many African intellectuals and writers versus the mixtures between French and African languages. For this, the term "creolization" is used, often in a pejorative way, and especially in the areas where French is on the same level with one or more local languages. According toGabriel Manessy,"The consequences of this concurrency may vary according to the social status of the speakers, to their occupations, to their degree of acculturation and thus to the level of their French knowledge."[20]

Code-switching,or the alternation of languages within a single conversation, takes place in bothDR CongoandSenegal,the former having four "national" languages –Ciluba,Kikongo,Lingala,andSwahili– which are in a permanent opposition to French. Code-switching has been studied since colonial times by different institutions of linguistics. One of these, located inDakar, Senegal,already spoke of the creolization[inconsistent]of French in 1968, naming the result "franlof": a mix of French andWolof(the language most spoken in Senegal) which spreads by its use in urban areas and through schools, where teachers often speak Wolof in the classroom despite official instructions.[21]

The omnipresence of local languages in Francophone African countries – along with insufficiencies in education – has given birth to a new linguistic concept:le petit français.[20]Le petit françaisis the result of a superposition of the structure of a local language with a narrowed lexical knowledge of French. The specific structures, though very different, are juxtaposed, marking the beginning of the creolization process.

Français populaire africain

[edit]

In the urban areas of Francophone Africa, another type of French has emerged:Français populaire africain( "Popular African French" ) or FPA. It is used in the entirety ofSub-Saharan Africa,but especially in cities such asAbidjan,Côte d'Ivoire;Cotonou,Benin;Dakar,Senegal;Lomé,Togo; andOuagadougou,Burkina Faso. At its emergence, it was marginalized and associated with the ghetto; Angèle Bassolé-Ouedraogo describes the reaction of the scholars:

Administration and professors do not want to hear that funny-sounding and barbarian language that seems to despise articles and distorts the sense of words. They see in it a harmful influence to the mastery of good French.[22]

However, FPA has begun to emerge as a second language among the upper class. It has also become a symbol of social acceptance.[citation needed]

FPA can be seen as a progressive evolution of Ivorian French. After diffusing out of Ivory Coast, it became Africanized under the influence of young Africans (often students) and cinema, drama, and dance.[citation needed]

FPA has its own grammatical rules and lexicon. For example, "Il ou elle peut me tuer!"or"Il ou elle peut me dja!"can either mean" This person annoys me very much (literally he or she is annoying me to death) "or" I'm dying (out of love) for him/her "depending on the circumstances."Il ou elle commence à me plaire"signifies a feeling of exasperation (whereupon it actually means" he or she starts to appeal to me "), and friendship can be expressed with"c'est mon môgô sûr"or"c'est mon bramôgo."[22]

FPA is mainly composed ofmetaphorsand images taken from African languages. For example, the upper social class is called "les en-haut d'en-haut"(the above from above) or"les môgôs puissants"(the powerful môgôs).

Pronunciation

[edit]

Pronunciation in the many varieties of African French can be quite varied. There are nonetheless some trends among African French speakers; for instance,⟨r⟩tends to be pronounced as the historicalveolar trillof pre-20th Century French instead of the now standarduvular trillor 'guttural R.' Thevoiced velar fricative,the sound represented by⟨غ⟩in theArabicwordمغربMaghrib,is another common alternative. Pronunciation of the letters⟨d⟩,⟨t⟩,⟨l⟩and⟨l⟩may also vary, andintonationmay differ from standard French.[citation needed]

Abidjan French

[edit]

According to some estimates, French is spoken by 75 to 99 percent ofAbidjan's population,[23]either alone or alongside indigenous African languages. There are three sorts of French spoken in Abidjan. A formal French is spoken by the educated classes. Most of the population, however, speaks a colloquial form of French known asfrançais de Treichville(after a working-class district of Abidjan) orfrançais de Moussa(after a character in chronicles published by the magazineIvoire Dimanchewhich are written in this colloquial Abidjan French). Finally, an Abidjan French slang calledNouchihas evolved from an ethnically neutrallingua francaamong uneducated youth into acreole languagewith a distinct grammar.[24]New words often appear inNouchiand then make their way into colloquial Abidjan French after some time.[25]As of 2012, acrowdsourceddictionary ofNouchiwas being written using mobile phones.[26]

Here are some examples of words used in the African French variety spoken in Abidjan (the spelling used here conforms toFrench orthography,except ô which is pronounced[ɔ]):[27]

  • une gois a slang word meaning a girl or a girlfriend. It is aloanwordeither from theMandinka languageor fromEnglish( "girl" ). It is also French hip-hop slang for a girl.[28]
  • un maquisis a colloquial word meaning a street-side eatery, a working-class restaurant serving African food. This word exists in standard French, but its meaning is "maquis shrubland",and by extension" guerrilla ", seeMaquis (World War II).It is not known exactly how this word came to mean street-side restaurant in Côte d'Ivoire.
  • un bra-môgôis a slang word equivalent to "bloke" or "dude" in English. It is a loanword from the Mandinka language.
  • chicotteris a word meaning to whip, to beat, or to chastise (children). It is a loanword fromPortuguesewhere it meant "to whip (the black slaves)". It has now entered the formal language of the educated classes.
  • le piais a slang word meaning money. It comes perhaps from the standard French wordpièce( "coin" ) orpierre( "stone" ), or perhapspiastre(dollar, buck).

When speaking in a formal context, or when meeting French speakers from outside Côte d'Ivoire, Abidjan speakers would replace these local words with the French standard wordsune fille,un restaurantorune cantine,un copain,battreandl'argentrespectively. Note that some local words are used across several African countries. For example,chicotteris attested not only in Côte d'Ivoire but also inSenegal,Mali,Niger,Burkina Faso,Chad,theCentral African Republic,Benin,Togoand theDemocratic Republic of the Congo.[25]

As already mentioned, these local words range from slang to formal usage, and their use therefore varies depending on the context. In Abidjan, this is how the sentence "The girl stole my money." is constructed depending on theregister:[25]

  • formal Abidjan French of the educated people:La fille m'a subtilisé mon argent.
  • colloquial Abidjan French (français de Moussa):Fille-là a prend mon l'argent.(in standard French, the grammatically correct sentence should beCette fille (là) m'a pris de l'argent)
  • Abidjan French slang (Nouchi):La go a momo mon pia.(Momois an Abidjan slang word meaning "to steal" )

Another unique, identifiable feature of Ivorian French is the use of the phrasen'avoir qu'à + infinitifwhich, translated into English, roughly means,to have only to + infinitive.[29]The phrase is often used in linguistic contexts of expressing a wish or creating hypotheticals. This original Ivorian phrase is generally used across the Ivory Coast's population; children, uneducated adults, and educated adults all using the phrase relatively equally. Often in written speech, the phrase is written asIls non cas essayer de voirrather thanIls n'ont qu'à essayer de voir.[29]

Characteristics

[edit]

Many characteristics of Ivorian/Abidjan French differ from "standard" French found in France. Many of the linguistic evolutions are from the influences of native African languages spoken within the Ivory Coast and make Abidjan French a distinct dialect of French.

Some of the major phonetic and phonological variations of Abidjan French, as compared to a more "typical" French, include substituting the nasal low vowel [ɑ̃] for a non-nasal [a], especially when the sound occurs at the beginning of a word, and some difficulty with the full production of the phonemes [ʒ] and [ʃ].[30]There are also, to a certain degree, rhythmic speaking speaking patterns in Ivorian French that are influenced by native languages.[30]

Ivorian French is also unique in its grammatical differences present in spoken speech such as these:[30]

  • omission of articles in some contexts (tu veux poissoninstead of the Frenchtu veux du poisson)
  • omission of prepositions in some contexts (Il parti Yamoussoukrorather thanIl est parti à Yamoussoukro)
  • interchangeable usage of indirect and direct objects (usingluiinstead ofleand vice versa)
  • more flexible grammatical formation

Algerian French

[edit]

Without being an official language, French is frequently used in government, workplaces, and education. French is the default language for work in several sectors. In a 2007 study set in the city ofMostaganem,it was shown that French andArabicwere the two functional languages of banking. Technical work (accounting, financial analysis, management) is also frequently done in French. Documents, forms, and posters are often in both French and Arabic.

The usage of French among the Algerian population is different depending on social situations. One can find:

  • direct borrowings, where the lexical unit is unchanged:surtout(particularly),voiture(car)
  • integrated borrowings, where the lexical unit experiences phonetic transformation:gendarme(police force),cinéma(cinema)
  • code switching, where another language is spoken in addition to French in a single oration (ex: Berber/French, Arabic/French)

Beninese French

[edit]

French is the sole official language in Benin. In 2014, over 4 million Beninese citizens spoke French (around 40% of the population).Fongbeis the other widely spoken language of Benin. It is natural to hear both languages blending, either through loan words or code-switching.

Few academic sources exist surrounding the particularisms of Beninese French. Nevertheless, it is evident that Beninese French has adapted the meanings of several French terms over time, such as:seconder(to have relations with a second woman, from the Frenchsecond -second),doigter(to show the way, from the Frenchdoigt- finger).

Burkinabe French

[edit]

French is the language of administration, education, and business inBurkina Fasoand was thede jureofficial language until a constitutional change in 2024. While spoken fluently only by about a quarter of the population, French has progressively become a native language among urban populations since the late 20th century, notably in the cities ofOuagadougou,Bobo-Dioulasso,andBanfora.By 2010, about 10% of Ouagadougou residents spoke French as their first language.[31]

Linguists have observed the development of a local vernacular of French in the country calledfrançais populaire burkinabèwhich is influenced by local languages such asMooréand is used as a lingua franca in commerce.[32]It is largely used as a spoken language whereas speakers continue to use standard French as the written language.[33]

Kinshasa French

[edit]
Boulevard du 30 Juinin the commercial heart of Kinshasa

With more than 11 million inhabitants,Kinshasais the largest Francophone city in the world, recently passingParisin population. It is the capital of the most populous francophone country in the world, theDemocratic Republic of the Congo,where an estimated 43 million people (51% of the total population) can speak French (essentially as a second language).[19][34]Contrary to Abidjan where French is the first language of a large part of the population, in Kinshasa French is only a second language, and its status oflingua francais shared withLingala.Kinshasa French also differs from other African French variants, for it has someBelgian Frenchinfluences, due to colonization. People of different African mother tongues living in Kinshasa usually speak Lingala to communicate with each other in the street, but French is the language of businesses, administrations, schools, newspapers and televisions. French is also the predominant written language.

Due to its widespread presence in Kinshasa, French has become a local language with its own pronunciation and some local words borrowed for the most part from Lingala. Depending on their social status, some people may mix French and Lingala, orcode switchbetween the two depending on the context. Here are examples of words particular to Kinshasa French. As in Abidjan, there exist variousregistersand the most educated people may frown upon the use of slangish/Lingala terms.

  • cadavérémeans broken, worn out, exhausted, or dead. It is aneologismon the standard French wordcadavrewhose meaning in standard French is "corpse". The wordcadavéréhas now spread to other African countries due to the popularity of Congolese music in Africa.
  • makasimeans strong, resistant. It is a loanword from Lingala.
  • anti-nuitare sunglasses worn by partiers at night. It is a word coined locally and whose literal meaning in standard French is "anti-night". It is one of the many Kinshasa slang words related to nightlife and partying. A reveler is known locally asun ambianceur,from standard Frenchambiancewhich means atmosphere.
  • casser le bic,literally "to break theBic",means to stop going to school.Bicis colloquially used to refer to a ballpoint pen inBelgian Frenchand Kinshasa French, but not in standard French.
  • merci mingimeans "thank you very much". It comes from standard Frenchmerci( "thank you" ) and Lingalamingi( "a lot" ).
  • un zibolateuris a bottle opener. It comes from the Lingala verbkozibolawhich means "to open something that is blocked up or bottled", to which was added the standard French suffix-ateur.
  • un tétanosis a rickety old taxi. In standard Frenchtétanosmeans "tetanus".
  • moyen tê vraimentmeans "absolutely impossible". It comes frommoyen tê( "there's no way" ), itself made up of standard Frenchmoyen( "way" ) and Lingalatê( "not", "no" ), to which was added standard Frenchvraiment( "really" ).
  • avoir un bureaumeans to have a mistress.Il a deux bureauxdoesn't mean "He has two offices", but "He has two mistresses".
  • article 15means "fend for yourself" or "find what you need by yourself".
  • ça ne dérange pasmeans "thank you" or "you are welcome". When it means "thank you", it can offend some French speakers who are not aware of its special meaning in Kinshasa. For example, if one offers a present to a person, they will often replyça ne dérange pas.In standard French, it means "I don't mind".
  • quatre-vingt-et-unis the way Kinois say 81,quatre-vingt-unin Europe.
  • compliquer quelqu'un,literally to make things "complicated" or difficult for someone. It can be anyone:Elle me complique,"She is giving me a tough time".
  • une tracasserieis something someone does to make another person's life harder, and often refers to policemen or soldiers. A fine is often called atracasserie,especially because the policemen in Kinshasa usually ask for an unpayable sum of money that requires extensive bargaining.

Characteristics

[edit]

There are many linguistic differences that occur in Kinshasa French that make it a distinct dialect of French. Similarly to many other African dialects of French, many of the linguistic aspects are influenced, either directly or indirectly, by the linguistics of the local African languages. It is also essential to note that grammatical differences between local Congolese languages and the French language, such as the lack of gendered nouns in the former, result in linguistic changes when speakers of the former speak French.[35]

Here are some of the phonetic characteristics of Kinshasa French:[36]

  • the posteriorization of anterior labial vowels in French, more specifically, the posteriorization of the common French phoneme [ɥ] for [u] (ex: pronunciation of the French wordcuisine[kɥizin] ascouwisine[kuwizin])
  • the delabialization of the phoneme [y] for the phoneme [i] (ex: pronunciation of the French termbureau[byʁo] asbiro[biʁo])
  • the vocalic opening of the French phoneme [œ] creating, instead, the phoneme [ɛ] (ex: pronunciation of the French wordacteur[aktœʁ] as actère [aktɛʁ])
  • in some cases, the denasalization of French vowels (ex: pronunciation of the French termbande[bɑ̃d] as ba-nde [band])
  • the mid-nasalization of occlusive consonants that follow the nasals [n] and [m] (ex: in relationship to the example above, the French wordbande[bɑ̃d] could be pronounced both as ba-nde [band] or as ban-nde with a slightly nasalized [d])
  • the palatalization of French apico-dental consonants that are followed by [i] and/or [ɥ] (ex: pronunciation of the French worddix[dis] is pronounced asdzix[dzis] and, similarly, the termpartimay be pronounced aspartsi)

As briefly mentioned above, many Congolese languages are ungendered languages and so there is often some mi xing of the French masculine and feminine articles in speakers of Kinshasa French, such as the phraseJe veux du bananerather than the "correct" FrenchJe veux de la banane.[35]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^29 full members of theOrganisation internationale de la Francophonie(OIF):Benin,Burkina Faso,Burundi,Cameroon,Cape Verde,Central African Republic,Chad,Comoros,DR Congo,Republic of the Congo,Côte d'Ivoire,Djibouti,Egypt,Equatorial Guinea,Gabon,Guinea,Guinea-Bissau,Madagascar,Mali,Mauritania,Mauritius,Morocco,Niger,Rwanda,São Tomé and Príncipe,Senegal,Seychelles,Togo,andTunisia.
    One associate member of the OIF:Ghana.
    One observer of the OIF:Mozambique.
    One country not member or observer of the OIF:Algeria.
    Two French territories in Africa:RéunionandMayotte.
  1. ^Countries initalicsindicate non-Francophone countries.

References

[edit]
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