Nubia

This article is about the region in Africa. For other uses, seeNubia (disambiguation).

Not to be confused withNumidia.

Nubia

Statues of several Nubian rulers of the late25th Dynasty–earlyNapatan period,7th century BC. From left to right:Tantamani,Taharqa(rear),Senkamanisken,againTantamani(rear),Aspelta,Anlamani,againSenkamanisken.Kerma Museum.

Outline of Nubia

Nubia(/ˈnjuːbiə/,Nobiin:Nobīn,Arabic:النُوبَة,romanized:an-Nūba) is a region along theNileriver encompassing the area between thefirst cataract of the Nile(south ofAswanin southernEgypt) and the confluence of theBlueandWhiteNiles (inKhartoumin centralSudan), or more strictly,Al Dabbah.It was the seat of one of the earliestcivilizationsofancientAfrica,theKerma culture,which lasted from around 2500 BC until its conquest by theNew Kingdom of EgyptunderPharaohThutmose Iaround 1500 BC, whose heirs ruled most of Nubia for the next 400 years. Nubia was home to severalempires,most prominently theKingdom of Kush,which conquered Egypt in the eighth century BC during the reign ofPiyeand ruled the country as its25th Dynasty(to be replaced a century later by the native Egyptian26th Dynasty).

From the 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD, northern Nubia would be invaded and annexed to Egypt, ruled by theGreeksandRomans.This territory was known in the Greco-Roman world asDodekaschoinos.

Kush's collapse in the fourth century AD was preceded by an invasion from the EthiopianKingdom of Aksumand the rise of three Christian kingdoms:Nobatia,MakuriaandAlodia.Makuria and Alodia lasted for roughly a millennium. Their eventual decline started not only the partition of Nubia, which was split into the northern half conquered by theOttomansand the southern half by theSennar sultanate,in the sixteenth century, but also a rapidIslamizationand partialArabizationof theNubian people.Nubia was reunited with theKhedivate of Egyptin the nineteenth century. Today, the region of Nubia is split between Egypt and Sudan.

The primarilyarchaeologicalscience dealing with ancient Nubia is calledNubiology.

Linguistics

Main article:Nubian languages

Nubia inhieroglyphs
Ta-seti T3-stj Curved land
Setiu Stjw Curved land of the Nubians
Nehset / Nehsyu / Nehsi Nḥst/Nḥsyw/Nḥsj Nubia/Nubians
Nubia

Historically, the people of Nubia spoke at least two varieties ofNubian languages,a subfamily that includesNobiin(the descendant of Old Nubian),Dongolawi,Midoband several related varieties in the northern part of theNuba MountainsinSouth Kordofan.TheBirgid languagewas spoken north ofNyalainDarfur,but has been extinct as late as 1970. However, the linguistic identity of the ancientKerma cultureof southern and central Nubia (also known asUpper Nubia), is uncertain; some research suggests that it belonged to theCushiticbranch of theAfroasiatic languages,while more recent studies indicate that the Kerma culture belonged to theEastern Sudanicbranch of Nilo-Saharan languages instead, and that other peoples of northern orLower Nubianorth of Kerma (such as theC-Group cultureand theBlemmyes) spoke Cushitic languages before the spread of Eastern Sudanic languages from southern orUpper Nubia.

Geography

See also:Aethiopia,Archaeological expeditions to Nubia,andNile boat

Nubia was divided into three major regions: Upper, Middle, and Lower Nubia, in reference to their locations along theNile."Lower" referred to regions downstream (further north) and "upper" to regions upstream (further south).Lower Nubialay between the First and the SecondCataractswithin the current borders of Egypt, Middle Nubia lay between the Second and the Third Cataracts, andUpper Nubialay south of the Third Cataract.

History

Prehistory (before 6000–3500 BC)

Archaeological evidence attests to long histories of fishing-hunting-gathering, and later herding, throughout the Nile Valley.

Affad 23is anarchaeological sitelocated in theAffadregion of southern Dongola Reach in northernSudan,which hosts "the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of the oldest open-airhutin the world) and diversehuntingandgatheringloci some 50,000 years old ".

In southern Nubia (near modern Khartoum) from the ninth to the sixth millennia cal BC, Khartoum Mesolithic fisher-hunter-gatherers produced sophisticated pottery.

By 5000 BC, the people who inhabited what is now called Nubia participated in theNeolithic Revolution.The Sahara became drier and people began to domesticate sheep, goats, and cattle.Saharanrock reliefsdepict scenes that have been thought to suggest the presence of acattle cult,typical of those seen throughout parts of Eastern Africa and the Nile Valley even to this day.Nubian rock art depicts hunters using bows and arrows in the neolithic period, which is a precursor to Nubian archer culture in later times.

Megaliths discovered atNabta Playaare early examples of what seems to be one of the world's firstastronomicaldevices, predatingStonehengeby almost 2,000 years.This complexity as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and theOld Kingdom of Egypt.

Joseph Vogel wrote that:

"The period whensub-Saharan Africawas most influential in Egypt was a time when neither Egypt, as we understand it culturally, nor the Sahara, as we understand it geographically, existed. Populations and cultures now found south of the desert roamed far to the north. The culture ofUpper Egypt,which became dynastic Egyptian civilization, could fairly be called a Sudanese transplant. "

British AfricanistBasil Davidsonoutlined that "The ancient Egyptians belonged, that is, not to any specific Egyptian region or Near Eastern heritage but to that wide community of peoples who lived between the Red Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, shared a common" Saharan-Sudanese culture ", and drew their reinforcements from the same great source, even though, as time went by, they also absorbed a number of wanderers from the Near East".

Biological anthropologistsShomarka Keita and A.J. Boyce have stated that the "Studies of crania fromsouthern predynastic Egypt,from the formative period (4000-3100 B.C.), show them usually to be more similar to the crania of ancient Nubians, Kushites, Saharans, or modern groups from theHorn of Africathan to those of dynastic northern Egyptians or ancient or modern southern Europeans. "

Archaeological evidence has attested that population settlements occurred in Nubia as early as the Late Pleistocene era and from the 5th millennium BC onwards, whereas there is "no or scanty evidence" of human presence in the Egyptian Nile Valley during these periods, which may be due to problems in site preservation.Several scholars have argued that the African origins of the Egyptian civilisation derived from pastoral communities which emerged in both the Egyptian and Sudanese regions of the Nile Valley in the fifth millennium BCE.

Dietrich Wildung (2018) examined Eastern Saharan pottery styles and Sudanese stone sculptures and suggested these artefacts were transmitted across the Nile Valley and influenced the pre-dynastic Egyptian culture in the Neolithic period.

Pre-Kerma; A-Group (3500-3000 BC)

"A-Group"style, Nubian pottery,Musee du Louvre

Upper Nubia

The poorly known "pre-Kerma"culture existed in Upper (Southern) Nubia on a stretch of fertile farmland just south of theThird Cataract.

Lower Nubia

Qustulincense burner, 3200–3000 BC

Nubia has one of the oldest civilizations in the world. This history is often intertwined with Egypt to the north.Around 3500 BC, the second "Nubian" culture, termed the EarlyA-Group culture,arose in Lower Nubia.They were sedentary agriculturalists,traded with the Egyptians and exported gold.This trade is supported archaeologically by large amounts of Egyptian commodities deposited in the A-Group graves. The imports consisted of gold objects, copper tools,faienceamulets and beads, seals, slate palettes, stone vessels, and a variety of pots.During this time, the Nubians began creating distinctive black topped, red pottery. The A-Group population have been described as ethnically “very similar” to the pre-dynasticEgyptiansin physical characteristics.

Around 3100 BC, the A-group transitioned from the Early to Classical phases. "Arguably royal burials are known only at Qustul and possibly Sayala."During this period, the wealth of A-group kings rivaled Egyptian kings. Royal A-group graves contained gold and richly decorated pottery.Some scholars believe Nubian A-Group rulers and early Egyptianpharaohsused related royal symbols; similarities in A-Group Nubia and Upper Egypt rock art support this position. Scholars from the University of Chicago Oriental Institute excavated atQustul(near Abu Simbel in Sudan), in 1960–64, and found artifacts which incorporated images associated with Egyptian pharaohs.

Archeologist Bruce Williams studied the artifacts and concluded that "Egypt and Nubia A-Group culture shared the same official culture", "participated in the most complex dynastic developments", and "Nubia and Egypt were both part of the great East African substratum".Williams also wrote that Qustul "could well have been the seat of Egypt's founding dynasty".David O'Connor wrote that the Qustul incense burner provides evidence that the A-group Nubian culture in Qustul marked the "pivotal change" frompredynasticto dynastic "Egyptian monumental art".However, "most scholars do not agree with this hypothesis",as more recent finds in Egypt indicate that this iconography originated in Egypt instead of Nubia, and that the Qustul rulers adopted or emulated the symbols of Egyptian pharaohs.

According toDavid Wengrow,the A-Group polity of the late 4th millenninum BCE is poorly understood since most of the archaeological remains are submerged underneath Lake Nasser.Frank Yurcoalso remarked that depictions of pharonic iconography such as the royal crowns, Horus falcons and victory scenes were concentrated in the Upper EgyptianNaqada cultureand A-Group Nubia. He further elaborated that "Egyptian writing arose in NaqadanUpper Egyptand A-Group Nubia, and not in the Delta cultures, where the directWestern Asiancontact was made, further vitiates the Mesopotamian-influence argument ".

The archaeological cemeteries at Qustul are no longer available for excavations since the flooding ofLake Nasser.The earliest representations of pharaonic iconography have been excavated from Nag el-Hamdulab inAswan,the extreme southern region of Egypt which borders the Sudan, with an estimated dating range between 3200 and 3100 BC.

Egypt in Nubia

Writing developed in Egypt around 3300 BC. In their writings, Egyptians referred to Nubia as "Ta-Seti",or" The Land of the Bow, "as the Nubians were known to be expert archers.More recent and broader studies have determined that the distinct pottery styles, differing burial practices, different grave goods, and site distribution all indicate that the Naqada people and the Nubian A-Group people were from different cultures.

Kathryn Bard states that "Naqada cultural burials contain very few Nubian craft goods, which suggests that while Egyptian goods were exported to Nubia and were buried in A-Group graves, A-Group goods were of little interest further north."According to anthropologist Jane Hill, there is no evidence that the pharaohs of theFirst Dynasty of Egyptburied atAbydoswere of Nubian origin.However, severalbiological anthropologicalstudies have shown the Badarian and Naqada people to be closely related to the Nubian and other,tropicalAfrican populations.Also, the proto-dynastic kings emerged from the Naqada region.

Early Kerma (3000–2400 BC)

A uniform culture of nomadic herders, called theGash group,existed from 3000 to 1500 BC to the east and west of Nubia.

In Lower Nubia, the A-group moved from the Classical to Terminal phase. At this time, kings at Qustul likely ruled all of Lower Nubia and demonstrated the political centralization of Nubian society.The A-Group culture came to an end sometime between 3100 and 2900 BC, when it was apparently destroyed by the First Dynasty rulers of Egypt.There are no records of settlement in Lower Nubia for the next 600 years. Old Kingdom Egyptian dynasties (4th to 6th) controlled uninhabited Lower Nubia and raided Upper Nubia.

Early Kerma; C-Group (2400–1550 BC)

Upper Nubia

Kerma style pottery (2500–1500 BC)

The pre-Kerma developed into the Middle phase Kerma group. Some A-group people (transitioning to C-group) settled the area and co-existed with the pre-Kerma group.Like other Nubian groups, the two groups made an abundance of red pottery with black tops, though each group made different shapes.Traces of the C-group in Upper Nubia vanish by 2000 BC and Kerma culture began to dominate Upper Nubia.The power of an independent Upper Nubia increased around 1700 BC and Upper Nubia dominated Lower Nubia.An Egyptian official, Harkhuf, mentions that Irtjet, Setjet, and Wawat all combined under a single ruler. By 1650 BC, Egyptian texts started to refer to only two kingdoms in Nubia: Kush and Shaat.Kush was centered at Kerma and Shaat was centered on Sai island.Bonnet posits that Kush actually ruled all of Upper Nubia, since "royal" graves were much larger in Kush than Shaat and Egyptian texts other than the Execration lists only refer to Kush (and not Shaat).

Lower Nubia

C-group Nubiansresettled Lower Nubia by 2400 BC.As trade between Egypt and Nubia increased, so did wealth and stability. Nubia was divided into a series of small kingdoms. There is debate over whether the C-group people,who flourished from 2500 BC to 1500 BC, were another internal evolution or invaders. O'Connor states "a transition from A group into a later culture, the C-group, can be traced" and the C-group culture was typical of Lower Nubia from 2400 to 1650 BC.Although they lived in close proximity to each other, Nubians did not acculturate much to Egyptian culture. Notable exceptions include C-group Nubians during the 15th Dynasty, isolated Nubian communities in Egypt, and some bowmen communities.C-Group pottery is characterized by all-over incised geometric lines with white infill and impressed imitations of basketry. Lower Nubia was controlled by Egypt from 2000 to 1700 BC and Upper Nubia from 1700 to 1525 BC.

From 2200 to 1700 BC, the Pan Grave culture appeared in Lower Nubia.Some of the people were likely theMedjay(mḏꜣ,) arriving from the desert east of the Nile river. One feature of Pan Grave culture was shallow grave burial. The Pan Grave and C-Group definitely interacted: Pan Grave pottery is characterized by more limited incised lines than the C-Group's and generally have interspersed undecorated spaces within the geometric schemes.

Egypt in Nubia

11th Dynastymodel of Nubian archers in the Egyptian army, from a tomb inAsyut(c. 2130–1991 BC).

In 2300 BC, Nubia was first mentioned inOld KingdomEgyptian accounts of trade missions. The Egyptians referred to Lower Nubia as Wawat, Irtjet, and Setju, while they referred to Upper Nubia as Yam. Some authors believe that Irtjet and Setju could also have been in Upper Nubia.They referred to Nubians dwelling near the river as Nehasyu.

FromAswan,the southern limit of Egyptian control at the time, Egyptians imported gold, incense, ebony, copper, ivory, and exotic animals from tropical Africa through Nubia. Relations between the Egyptians and Nubians showed peaceful cultural interchange, cooperation, and mixed marriages. Nubian bowmen that settled at Gebelein during the First Intermediate Period married Egyptian women, were buried in Egyptian style, and eventually could not be distinguished from Egyptians.

Older scholarship noted that some Egyptian pharaohs may have had Nubian ancestry.Richard Loban expressed the view thatMentuhotep IIof the 11th Dynasty "was quite possibly of Nubian origin" and cited historical evidence which mentioned thatAmenemhet I,founder of the 12th Dynasty, "had a Ta Seti or Nubian mother".Dietrich Wildung has argued that Nubian features were common in Egyptian iconography since the pre-dynastic era and that several pharaohs such asKhufuandMentuhotep IIwere represented with these Nubian features.

Frank Yurco wrote that "Egyptian rulers of Nubian ancestry had become Egyptians culturally; as pharaohs, they exhibited typical Egyptian attitudes and adopted typical Egyptian policies". Yurco noted that some Middle Kingdom rulers, particularly some pharaohs of theTwelfth Dynastyhad strong Nubian features, due to the origin of the dynasty in the Aswan region of southern Egypt. He also identified the pharaoh Sequenre Tao of theSeventeenth Dynasty,as having Nubian features.Many scholars in recent years have argued that the mother of Amenemhat I, founder of theTwelfth Dynastywas of Nubian origin.

After a period of withdrawal, theMiddle Kingdom of Egyptconquered Lower Nubia from 2000 to 1700 BC.By 1900 BC, King Sesostris I began building a series of towns below the Second Cataract with heavy fortresses that had enclosures and drawbridges.Sesotris IIIrelentlessly expanded his kingdom into Nubia (from 1866 to 1863 BC) and erected massive river forts includingBuhen,Semna,ShalfakandToshkaatUronartito gain more control over the trade routes in Lower Nubia. They also provided direct access to trade with Upper Nubia, which was independent and increasingly powerful during this time. These Egyptian garrisons seemed to peacefully coexist with the local Nubian people, though they did not interact much with them.

Medjay was the name given byancient Egyptto nomadic desert dwellers from east of the Nile river. The term was used variously to describe a location, the Medjay people, or their role/job in the kingdom. They became part of the Egyptian military as scouts and minor workers before being incorporated into the Egyptian army.In the army, the Medjay served as garrison troops in Egyptian fortifications in Nubia and patrolled the deserts as a kind ofgendarmerie,or elite paramilitary police force,to prevent their fellow Medjay tribespeople from further attacking Egyptian assets in the region.

The Medjay were often used to protect valuable areas, especially royal and religious complexes. Although they are most notable for their protection of the royal palaces and tombs inThebesand the surrounding areas, the Medjay were deployed throughout Upper and Lower Egypt; they were even used duringKamose's campaign against theHyksosand became instrumental in turning the Egyptian state into a military power.After theFirst Intermediate Period of Egypt,the Medjay district was no longer mentioned in written records.

Kerma; Egyptian Empire (1550–1100 BC)

Upper Nubia

Main article:Kerma culture

Western Deffufa

Daggers of bone and copper, 1750–1450 BC, Kerma, British Museum EA55442

From the Middle Kerma phase, the first Nubian kingdom to unify much of the region arose. The Classic Kerma culture, named for its royal capital atKerma,was one of the earliest urban centers in the Nile region and oldest city in Africa outside of Egypt.The Kerma group spoke either languages of theCushiticbranchor, according to more recent research,Nilo-Saharanlanguages of theEastern Sudanicbranch.

By 1650 BC (Classic Kerma phase), the kings of Kerma were powerful enough to organize the labor for monumental town walls and large mud brick structures, such as the Eastern and Western Deffufas (50 by 25 by 18 meters). They also had rich tombs with possessions for the afterlife and largehuman sacrifices.George Andrew Reisnerexcavated sites at the royal city of Kerma and found distinctiveNubian architecture,such as large pebble covered tombs (90 meters in diameter), a large circular dwelling, and a palace-like structure.Classic Kerma rulers employed "a good many Egyptians", according to the Egyptian Execration texts.

Mirror. Kerma Period, 1700–1550 BC.

Kerma culture was militaristic, as attested by many archers' burials and bronze daggers/swords found in their graves.Other signs of Nubia's military prowess are the frequent use of Nubians in Egypt's military and Egypt's need to construct numerous fortresses to defend their southern border from the Nubians.Despite assimilation, the Nubian elite remained rebellious during Egyptian occupation. There were numerous rebellions and "military conflict occurred almost under every reign until the 20th dynasty".At one point, Kerma came very close to conquering Egypt: Egypt suffered a serious defeat at the hands of theKingdom of Kush.

According to Davies, head of the jointBritish Museumand Egyptian archaeological team, the attack was so devastating that, if the Kerma forces had chosen to stay and occupy Egypt, they might have permanently eliminated the Egyptians and brought the nation to extinction. During Egypt's Second Intermediate period, the Kushites reached the height of their Bronze Age power and completely controlled southern trade with Egypt.They maintained diplomatic ties with the Thebans and Hyksos until the New Kingdom pharaohs brought all of Nubia under Egyptian rule from 1500 to 1070 BC.After 1070 BC, there were continued hostilities with Egypt, which led Nubians to concentrate in Upper Nubia.Within 200 years, a fully formed Kushite state, based at Napata, began to exert its influence on Upper (Southern) Egypt.

Lower Nubia

When the Middle Kingdom Egyptians pulled out of the Napata region around 1700 BC, they left a lasting legacy that was merged with indigenous C-group customs. Egyptians remaining at the garrison towns started to merge with the C-group Nubians in Lower Nubia. The C-group quickly adopted Egyptian customs and culture, as attested by their graves, and lived together with the remaining Egyptians in garrison towns.After Upper Nubia annexed Lower Nubia around 1700 BC, the Kingdom of Kush began to control the area. At this point, C-group Nubians and Egyptians began to proclaim their allegiance to the Kushite King in their inscriptions.Egypt conquered Lower and Upper Nubia from 1500 to 1070 BC. However, the Kingdom of Kush survived longer than Egypt.

Egypt in Nubia

Nubian PrinceHeqaneferbringing tribute for KingTutankhamun,18th dynasty, Tomb of Huy. Circa 1342 – c. 1325 BC

The Turin Papyrus Map, dating to about 1160 BC

After the Theban 17th DynastyNew Kingdom of Egypt(c. 1532–1070 BC) expelled the Canaanite Hyksos from Egypt, they turned their imperial ambitions to Nubia. By the end ofThutmose I's reign (1520 BC), all of Lower Nubia had been annexed. After a long campaign, Egypt also conquered the Kingdom of Kerma in Upper Nubia and held both areas until 1070 BC.The Egyptian empire expanded into the Fourth Cataract, and a new administrative center was built atNapata,which became agoldand incense production area.Egypt became a prime source of gold in the Middle East. The primitive working conditions for the slaves are recorded byDiodorus Siculus.One of the oldest maps known is of a gold mine in Nubia: theTurin Papyrus Mapdating to about 1160 BC; it is also one of the earliest characterized road maps in existence.

Nubians were an integral part of New Kingdom Egyptian society. Some scholars state that Nubians were included in the18th Dynasty of Egypt's royal family.Ahmose-Nefertari,"arguably the most venerated woman in Egyptian history",was thought by some scholars such asFlinders Petrieto be of Nubian origin because she is most often depicted with black skin.The mummy ofAhmose-Nefertari's father,Seqenenre Tao,has been described as presenting "tightly curled, woolly hair", with "a slight build and strongly Nubian features".Some modern scholars also believe that in some depictions, her skin color is indicative of her role as a goddess of resurrection, since black is both the color of the fertile land of Egypt and that of the underworld.However, there is no known depiction of her painted during her lifetime (she is represented with the same light skin as other represented individuals in tomb TT15, before her deification); the earliest black skin depiction appears in tomb TT161,c.150 years after her death.Egyptologist Barbara Lesko wrote in 1996 that Ahmose-Nefertari was "sometimes portrayed by later generations as having been black, although her coffin portrait gives her the typical light yellow skin of women."In 2009, Egyptologist Elena Vassilika, noting that in a wooden statuette of the queen (now at theMuseo Egizio) the face is painted black but the arms and feet are light in color, argued that the reason for the black coloring in that case was religious and not genetic.

In 1098–1088 BC, Thebes was "the scene of a civil war-like conflict between the High Priest of Amun of Thebes Amenhotep and the Viceroy of KushPanehesy(= the Nubian) ". It was chaotic and many tombs were plundered. Instead of sending soldiers to restore order,Ramesses XIput Panehesy in control of that area's military and appointed him Director of Granaries. Panehesy stationed his troops in Thebes to protect the city from thieves, but it resembled a military occupation of Thebes to the High Priest, which later led to the Civil war in Thebes.By 1082 BC, Ramesses XI finally sent help to the High Priest. Panehesy continued his revolt and the city of Thebes suffered from "war, famine, and plunderings".Panehesy initially succeeded and the High Priest fled Thebes. Panehesy pursued the High Priest as far as Middle Egypt before Egyptian forces pushed Panehesy and his troops out of Egypt and into Lower Nubia.Ramesses sent new leadership to Thebes:Herihorwas named the new High Priest of Thebes (and effectively King of Southern Egypt) and Paiankh was named the new Viceroy of Kush. Paiankh recaptured former Egyptian holdings in Lower Nubia as far as the second Nile cataract, but could not defeat Panehesy in Lower Nubia, who ruled the area until his death.Herihor's descendants became rulers of Egypt's 21st and 22nd Dynasties.

Napatan Empire (750–542 BC)

Main article:Kingdom of Kush

Pyramids of Kushite rulers atNuri

Pyramid of Taharqa at Nuri, 51.75m in side length and possibly as much as 50m high, was the largest built in Sudan.[1]

Pharaoh Taharqa of Ancient Egypt's 25th Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford UK

There are competing theories on the origins of the Kushite kings of the 25th Dynasty:some scholars believe they were Nubian officials that learned "state level organization" by administering Egyptian-held Nubia from 1500 to 1070 BC,such as the rebel Viceroy of Kush, Panehesy, who ruled Upper Nubia and some of Lower Nubia after Egyptian forces withdrew.Other scholars believe they are descended from families of the Egyptianized Nubian elite supported by Egyptian priests or settlers.Children of elite Nubian families were sent to be educated in Egypt then returned to Kush to be appointed in bureaucratic positions to ensure their loyalty. During the Egyptian occupation of Nubia, there were temple towns with Egyptian cults, but "production and redistribution" was based mostly on indigenous social structures.

The El Kurru chiefdom likely played a major role in the development of the Kingdom of Kush due to its access to gold producing areas, control of caravan routes,more arable land, and participation in international trade."There can be no doubt that el-Kurru was the burial place of the ancestors of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty."The early el-Kurru burials resemble Nubian Kerma/C-group traditions (contracted body, circular stone structures, burial on a bed).However, by 880–815 BC, Nubian burials at el-Kurru became more Egyptian in style with "mastabas, or pyramid on mastabas, chapels, and rectangular enclosures".Alara, the first el-Kurru prince, and his successor,Kashta,were buried at el-Kurru.

Later documents mention Alara as the 25th Dynasty's founder and "central to a myth of the origins of the kingdom".Alara's sister was the priestess of Amun, which created a system of royal secession and an "ideology of royal power in which Kushite concepts and practice were united with contemporary Egyptian concepts of kingship".Later, Kashta's daughter, the Kushite princess Amenirdis, was installed as God's Wife of Amun Elect and later Divine Adoratrice (effectively governor of Upper Egypt), which signaled the Kushite conquest of Egyptian territories.

The Napatan Empire ushered in the age of Egyptian archaism, or a return to a historical past, which was embodied by a concentrated effort at religious renewal and restoration of Egypt's holy places.Piyeexpanded theTemple of Amun at Jebel Barkalby adding "an immense colonnaded forecourt".Shabakarestored the great Egyptian monuments and temples, "unlike his Libyan predecessors".Taharqaenriched Thebes on a monumental scale. "At Karnak, the Sacred Lake structures, the kiosk in the first court, and the colonnades at the temple entrance are all built by Taharqa and Mentuemhet. In addition to architecture, the Kingdom of Kush was deeply influenced by Egyptian culture.By 780 BC,Amunwas the main god of Kush and "intense contacts with Thebes" were maintained.Kush used the methods of Egyptian art and writing.The Nubian elite adopted many Egyptian customs and gave their children Egyptian names. Although some Nubian customs and beliefs (e.g. burial practices) continued to be practiced,Egyptianization dominated in ideas, practices, and iconography.The cultural Egyptianization of Nubia was at its highest levels at the times of both Kashta and Piye.

Nubia in Egypt

Main article:Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt

Kushite heartland, and Kushite Empire of theTwenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt,circa 700 BC.

Taharqa'skioskand column, Karnak temple

Kashta peacefully became King of Upper and Lower Egypt with his daughter Amendiris as Divine Adoratrice of Amun in Thebes.Rulers of the 23rd Dynasty withdrew from Thebes to Heracleopolis, which avoided conflict with the new Kushite rulers of Thebes. Under Kashta's reign, the Kushite elite and professional classes became significantly Egyptianized.

The city-state ofNapatawas the spiritual capital of Kush and it was from there thatPiye(spelled Piankhi or Piankhy in older works) invaded and took control ofEgypt.Piye personally led the attack on Egypt and recorded his victory in a lengthy hieroglyphic filledstelecalled the "Stele of Victory".Piye's success in achieving the double kingship after generations of Kushite planning resulted from "Kushite ambition, political skill, and the Theban decision to reunify Egypt in this particular way", and not Egypt's utter exhaustion, "as frequently suggested in Egyptological studies."Due to archaism, Piye mostly used the royal titulary of Tuthmosis III, but changed the Horus name from "Strong bull appearing (crowned) in Thebes" to "Strong bull appearing in Napata" to announce that the Kushites had reversed history and conquered their former Thebaid Egyptian conquerors.He also revived one of the greatest features of the Old and Middle Kingdoms: pyramid construction. As an energetic builder, he constructed the oldest known pyramid at the royal burial site ofEl-Kurru.

According to the revised chronology,Shebitku"brought the entire Nile Valley as far as the Delta under the empire of Kush and is 'reputed' to have had Bocchoris, dynast of Sais, burnt to death".Shabaka"transferred the capital to Memphis".Shebitku's successor,Taharqa,was crowned in Memphis in 690 BCand ruled Upper and Lower Egypt as Pharaoh from Tanis in the Delta.Excavations at el-Kurru and studies of horse skeletons indicate the finest horses used in Kushite and Assyrian warfare were bred in and exported from Nubia. Horses and chariots were key to the Kushite war machine.

Taharqa's reign was a prosperous time in the empire with a particularly large Nile river flood and abundant crops and wine.Taharqa's inscriptions indicate that he gave large amounts of gold to the temple of Amun at Kawa.His army undertook successful military campaigns, as attested by the "list of conquered Asiatic principalities" from the Mut temple at Karnak and "conquered peoples and countries (Libyans, Shasu nomads, Phoenicians?, Khor in Palestine)" from Sanam temple inscriptions.László Török mentions the military success was due to Taharqa's efforts to strengthen the army through daily training in long-distance running and Assyria's preoccupation with Babylon and Elam.Taharqa also built military settlements at the Semna and Buhen forts and the fortified site of Qasr Ibrim.

Imperial ambitions of theMesopotamian-basedAssyrian Empiremade war with the 25th Dynasty inevitable. Taharqa conspired with Levantine kingdoms against Assyria:in 701 BC, Taharqa and his army aidedJudahand KingHezekiahin withstanding a siege by KingSennacheribof the Assyrians (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9).There are various theories (Taharqa's army,disease, divine intervention, Hezekiah's surrender, Herodotus' mice theory) as to why the Assyrians failed to take Jerusalem and withdrew to Assyria.Sennacherib's annals record Judah was forced into tribute after the siege and Sennacherib became the ruler of the regionHowever, this is contradicted by Khor's frequent utilization of an Egyptian system of weights for trade and the twenty-year cessation in Assyria's pattern of repeatedly invading Khor (as Assyrians had before 701 and after Sennacherib's death).In 681 BC, Sennacherib was murdered by his own sons inBabylon.

In 679 BC, Sennacherib's successor, KingEsarhaddon,campaigned in Khor, destroyed Sidon, and forced Tyre into tribute in 677–676 BC. Esarhaddon invaded Egypt proper in 674 BC, but according to Babylonian records, Taharqa and his army outright defeated the Assyrians.In 672 BC, Taharqa brought reserve troops from Kush, as mentioned in rock inscriptions.Taharqa's Egypt still had influence in Khor during this period as Tyre's King Ba'lu "put his trust upon his friend Taharqa". Further evidence wasAshkelon's alliance with Egypt and Esarhaddon's inscription asking "if the Kushite-Egyptian forces 'plan and strive to wage war in any way' and if the Egyptian forces will defeat Esarhaddon at Ashkelon".However, Taharqa was defeated in Egypt in 671 BC when Esarhaddon conquered Northern Egypt, captured Memphis, and imposed tribute before withdrawing.Pharaoh Taharqa escaped to the south, but Esarhaddon captured the Pharaoh's family, including "Prince Nes-Anhuret and the royal wives",and sent them to Assyria. In 669 BC, Taharqa reoccupied Memphis and the Delta, and recommenced intrigues with the king of Tyre.

Esarhaddon led his army to Egypt again and, after his death in 668 BC, command passed toAshurbanipal.Ashurbanipal and the Assyrians defeated Taharqa again and advanced as far south as Thebes, but direct Assyrian control was not established.The rebellion was stopped and Ashurbanipal appointedNecho I,who had been king of the citySais,as his vassal ruler in Egypt. Necho's son,Psamtik I,was educated at the Assyrian capital ofNinevehduring Esarhaddon's reign.As late as 665 BC, the vassal rulers of Sais, Mendes, and Pelusium were still makingoverturesto Taharqa in Kush.The vassals' plot was uncovered by Ashurbanipal and all rebels but Necho of Sais were executed.

Taharqa's successor,Tantamani,sailed north from Napata with a large army to Thebes, where he was "ritually installed as the king of Egypt".From Thebes, Tantamani began his reconquest and regained control of Egypt as far north as Memphis.Tantamani's dream stele states that he restored order from the chaos, where royal temples and cults were not being maintained.After conquering Sais and killing Assyria's vassal, Necho I, in Memphis, "some local dynasts formally surrendered, while others withdrew to their fortresses".

The Kushites had influence over their northern neighbors for nearly 100 years until they were repelled by the invading Assyrians. The Assyrians installed the native26th Dynasty of EgyptunderPsamtik Iand they permanently forced the Kushites out of Egypt around 590 BC.The heirs of the Kushite empire established their new capital atNapata,which was also sacked by the Egyptians in 592 BC. The Kushite kingdom survived for another 900 years after being pushed south toMeroë.The Egyptianized culture of Nubia grew increasingly Africanized after the fall of the 25th Dynasty until QueenAmanishakheteacceded in 45 BC.She temporarily arrested the loss of Egyptian culture, but then it continued unchecked.

Meroitic (542 BC–400 AD)

Main article:Meroë

Aerial view atNubian pyramids,Meroe

Apedemak Temple atNaqa

Due to pressure from Assyrians and Egyptians,Meroë(800 BC –c. 350 AD) became the southern capital of theKingdom of Kush.According to partially deciphered Meroitic texts, the name of the city was Medewi or Bedewi. Meroë was in southern Nubia by the east bank of the Nile, about 6 km north-east of the Kabushiya station near Shendi, Sudan, and about 200 km northeast ofKhartoum.Meroë is mentioned in first-century ADPeriplus of the Erythraean Sea:"farther inland, in the country towards the west, there lies a city called Meroe". In fifth-century BC, Greek historianHerodotusdescribed it as "a great city...said to be the mother city of the other Ethiopians."Together,Musawwarat es-Sufra,Naqa,and Meroë formed the Island of Meroe.

The town's importance gradually increased fromthe beginning of the Meroitic Period,especially from the reign ofArakamani(c. 280 BC) when the royal burial ground was transferred to Meroë fromNapata(Jebel Barkal). Excavations revealed evidence of important, high ranking Kushite burials, from the Napatan Period (c. 800 – c. 280 BC) in the vicinity of the settlement called the Western cemetery. They buried their kings in small pyramids with steeply sloped sides that were based on New Kingdom Viceroy designs.At its peak, the rulers of Meroë controlled the Nile Valley over a north–south straight-line distance of more than 1,000 km (620 mi).

People of the Meroitic period preserved many ancient Egyptian customs but were unique in many respects. TheMeroitic languagewas spoken in Meroë and Sudan during the Meroitic period (attested from 300 BC) before becoming extinct around 400 AD. They developed their own form of writing by using Egyptianhieroglyphsbefore switching to a cursive Alpha betic script with 23 signs.It was split into two types: Meroitic Cursive, which was written with astylusand used for general record-keeping; and Meroitic Hieroglyphic, which was carved in stone or used for royal or religious documents. It is not well understood due to the scarcity ofbilingualtexts.The earliest inscription in Meroitic writing dates from between 180 and 170 BC. These hieroglyphics were found engraved on the temple of QueenShanakdakhete.Meroitic Cursive is written horizontally, and is read from right to left like all Semitic orthographies.The Meroitic people worshiped the Egyptian gods as well as their own, such asApedemakand the lion-son ofSekhmet(orBast).

Meroë was the base of a flourishing kingdom whose wealth was centered around a strongironindustry and international trade withIndiaandChina.Metalworking is believed to have happened in Meroë, possibly throughbloomeriesandblast furnaces.The centralized control of production within the Meroitic empire and distribution of certain crafts and manufactures may have been politically important. Other important sites were Musawwarat es-Sufra and Naqa.Musawwarat es-Sufra,which is now a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site,was constructed in sandstone. Its main features were the Great Enclosure, the Lion Temple ofApedemak(14×9×5 meters), and the Great Reservoir. The Great Enclosure is the main structure of the site. Much of the large labyrinth-like building complex, which covers approximately 45,000 m²,was erected in third-century BC.

The scheme of the site is, so far, without parallel in Nubia andancient Egypt.According to Hintze, "the complicated ground plan of this extensive complex of buildings is without parallel in the entire Nile valley".The maze ofcourtyardsincludes three (possible) temples, passages, low walls that prevent any contact with the outside world, about 20 columns, ramps and two reservoirs.There is some debate about the purpose of the buildings, with earlier suggestions including a college, a hospital, and an elephant-training camp.The Lion Temple was constructed byArnekhamaniand bears inscriptions in Egyptian hieroglyphs, representations of elephants and lions on the rear inside wall, and reliefs of Apedemak depicted as a three-headed god on the outside walls.The Great Reservoir is ahafirto retain as much as possible of the rainfall of the short, wet season. It is 250 m in diameter and 6.3 m deep.

Kandake,often Latinised as Candace, was theMeroiticterm for the sister of the king of Kush who, due tomatrilinealsuccession, would bear the next heir, making her aqueen mother.According to scholarBasil Davidson,at least fourKushitequeens —Amanirenas,Amanishakheto,NawidemakandAmanitore— probably spent part of their lives inMusawwarat es-Sufra.Plinywrites that the "Queen of theEthiopians"bore the titleCandace,and indicates that the Ethiopians had conquered ancientSyriaand theMediterranean.In 25 BC the Kush kandakeAmanirenas,as reported byStrabo,attacked the city of Syene (known asAswantoday) within the territory of theRoman Empire;EmperorAugustusdestroyed the city of Napata in retaliation.In the New Testament biblical account,a treasury officialof "Candace, queen of the Ethiopians", returning from a trip toJerusalem,met withPhilip the Evangelistand was baptized.

Achaemenid period

Kušiyasoldier of theAchaemenid army,circa 480 BC.Xerxes Itomb relief.

Marble portrait of a Nubian ca. 120–100 BC

The Achaemenids occupied the Kushan kingdom, possibly from the time ofCambyses(c. 530 BC), and more probably from the time ofDarius I(550–486 BC), who mentions the conquest of Kush (Kušiya) in his inscriptions.

Herodotusmentioned an invasion of Kush by theAchaemenidruler Cambyses II, however, he mentions that "his expedition failed miserably in the desert".Derek Welsby states "scholars have doubted that this Persian expedition ever took place, but... archaeological evidence suggests that the fortress ofDorginartinear the second cataract served as Persia's southern boundary. "

Ptolemaic period

The GreekPtolemaic KingdomunderPtolemy II Philadelphusinvaded Nubia in 275 BC and annexed the northern twelve miles of this territory, subsequently known as theDodekaschoinos('twelve-mile land').Throughout the 160s and 150s BC,Ptolemy VIhas also reasserted Ptolemaic control over the northern part of Nubia.

There is no record of conflict between the Kushites and Ptolemies. However, there was a serious revolt at the end of Ptolemy IV's reign and the Kushites likely tried to interfere in Ptolemaic affairs.It is suggested that this led to Ptolemy V defacing the name of Arqamani on inscriptions at Philae."Arqamani constructed a small entrance hall to the temple built by Ptolemy IV at Pselchis and constructed a temple at Philae to which Ptolemy contributed an entrance hall."There is evidence of Ptolemaic occupation as far south as the Second Cataract, but recent finds at Qasr Ibrim, such as "the total absence of Ptolemaic pottery", have cast doubts on the effectiveness of the occupation.Dynastic struggles led to the Ptolemies abandoning the area, so "the Kushites reasserted their control...with Qasr Ibrim occupied" (by the Kushites) and other locations perhaps garrisoned.

Roman period

According to Welsby, after the Romans assumed control of Egypt, they negotiated with the Kushites at Philae and drew the southern border of Roman Egypt at Aswan.Theodore Mommsenand Welsby state the Kingdom of Kush became a client Kingdom, which was similar to the situation under Ptolemaic rule of Egypt. Kushite ambition and excessive Roman taxation are two theories for a revolt supported by Kushite armies.The ancient historians,Straboand Pliny, give accounts of the conflict with Roman Egypt.

Meroitic prince smiting his enemies (early first century AD)

Strabo describes a war with theRomansin first-century BC. He stated that the Kushites "sacked Aswan with an army of 30,000 men and destroyed imperial statues...at Philae."A "fine over-life-size bronze head of the emperor Augustus" was found buried in Meroe in front of a temple.After the initial victories ofKandake(or "Candace" )Amanirenasagainst Roman Egypt, the Kushites were defeated andNapatawas sacked.Napata's fall was not a crippling blow to the Kushites and did not frighten Candace enough to prevent her from again engaging in combat with the Roman military. In 22 BC, a large Kushite force moved northward with the intention of attacking Qasr Ibrim.

Alerted to the advance, Petronius again marched south and managed to reach Qasr Ibrim and bolster its defences before the invading Kushites arrived. Welsby states after a Kushite attack on Primis (Qasr Ibrim),the Kushites sent ambassadors to negotiate a peace settlement with Petronius, which succeeded on favourable terms.Trade between the two nations increased and the Roman Egyptian border being extended to "Hiera Sykaminos (Maharraqa)."This arrangement "guaranteed peace for most of the next 300 years" and there is "no definite evidence of further clashes."

During this time, different parts of the region divided into smaller groups with individual leaders (or generals), each commanding small armies of mercenaries. They fought for control of what is now Nubia and its surrounding territories, leaving the entire region weak and vulnerable to attack. Meroë would eventually be defeated by the new risingKingdom of Aksumto their south ruled byKing Ezana.A stele ofGe'ezof an unnamed ruler ofAksumthought to be Ezana was found at the site of Meroë. From his description, inGreek,he was "King of theAksumitesand theOmerites"(i.e. ofAksumandHimyar). It is likely this king ruled sometime around 330 AD. While some authorities interpret these inscriptions as proof that the Axumites destroyed the kingdom ofMeroe,others note that archeological evidence points to an economic and political decline in Meroe around 300.Moreover, some view the stele as military aid from Aksum to Meroe to quell the revolt and rebellion. From then on, the Romans referred to the area asNobatia.

Christian Nubia

Main articles:Makuria,Nobadia,andAlodia

Wall painting fromFaras,first half of 11th c CE,National Museum in Warsaw

Around 350 AD, the area was invaded by theKingdom of Aksumand the Meroitic kingdom collapsed. Three smallerChristiankingdoms replaced it: the northernmost wasNobatia(capital Pachoras; now modern-dayFaras, Egypt) between the first and second cataract of theNile River;in the middle wasMakuria(capitalOld Dongola), and southernmost wasAlodia(capital Soba). King Silky of Nobatia defeated theBlemmyesand recorded his victory in aGreek languageinscription carved in the wall of the temple of Talmis (modernKalabsha) around 500 AD.

Christianityhad been introduced to the region by the fourth century: BishopAthanasius of Alexandriaconsecrated Marcus as bishop ofPhilaebefore his death in 373 AD.John of Ephesusrecords that aMiaphysitepriest named Julian converted the king and his nobles of Nobatia around 545 AD. He also writes that the kingdom of Alodia was converted around 569. However,John of Biclarumwrote that the kingdom of Makuria converted toCatholicismthe same year, suggesting that John of Ephesus might be mistaken. Further doubt is cast on John'stestimony by an entry in the chronicle of theGreek Orthodox Patriarch of AlexandriaEutychius of Alexandria,which states that in 719 AD the church of Nubia transferred its allegiance from theGreekto theCoptic Orthodox Church.After the official Christianization of Nubia, the Isis cult of Philae remained for the sake of the Nubians. The edict of Theodosius I (390 AD) was not enforced at Philae. Later attempts to suppress the cult of Isis led to armed clashes between the Nubians and Romans. Finally, in 453 AD, a treaty recognizing the traditional religious rights of Nubians at Philae was signed.

By the seventh century, Makuria expanded and became the dominant power in the region. It was strong enough to halt the southern expansion ofIslamafter theArabshad taken Egypt. After several failed invasions the new Muslim rulers agreed to a treaty with Dongola, calledBaqt,to allow peaceful coexistence and trade, contingent on the Nubians making an annual payment consisting of slaves and other tributes to the Islamic Governor at Aswan; it guaranteed that any runaway slaves were returned to Nubia.The treaty was kept for six hundred years.Throughout this period, Nubia's main exports were dates and slaves, though ivory and gold were also exchanged for Egyptian ceramics, textiles, and glass.Over time the influx of Arab traders introduced Islam to Nubia and it gradually supplantedChristianity.After an interruption in the annual tribute of slaves, the Egyptian Mamluk ruler invaded in 1272 and declared himself sovereign over half of Nubia.While there are records of a bishopTimothyatQasr Ibrimin 1372, his see included Faras. It is also clear that the cathedral of Dongola had been converted to a mosque in 1317.

The influx ofArabsand Nubians to Egypt and Sudan had contributed to the suppression of the Nubian identity following the collapse of the last Nubian kingdom around 1504. A vast majority of the Nubian population is currently Muslim, and the Arabic language is their main medium of communication in addition to their indigenous Nubian language. The unique characteristic of Nubian is shown in their culture (dress, dances, traditions, and music).

Islamic Nubia

Main article:Islamization of Sudan

Further information:Turco-Egyptian conquest of Sudan (1820–1824) § Invasion of Nubia

In the fourteenth century, the Dongolan government collapsed and the region was divided and dominated by Arabs. Several Arab invasions into the region and the establishment of smaller kingdoms occurred over the next few centuries. Northern Nubia was brought under Egyptian control, while the south was controlled by theKingdom of Sennarin the sixteenth century. The entire region came under Egyptian control duringMuhammad Ali's rule in the early nineteenth century, and later became a joint Anglo-Egyptiancondominium.

21st-century archaeology

In 2003, archaeologistCharles Bonnetled a team of Swiss archaeologists to excavate nearKermaand discovered a cache of monumental black granite statues of the Pharaohs of the25th Dynasty of Egypt,now displayed at theKerma Museum.Among the sculptures are ones belonging to the dynasty's last two pharaohs,TaharqaandTanoutamon,whose statues are described as "masterpieces that rank among the greatest in art history".Craniometric analysis of Kerma fossils that compared them to various other early populations inhabiting theNile ValleyandMaghrebfound that they were morphologically close toPredynastic EgyptiansfromNaqada(4000–3200 BC).Dental trait analysis of Kerma fossils found affinities with various populations inhabiting theNile Valley,Horn of Africa,andNortheast Africa,especially to other ancient populations from the central and northern Sudan. Among the sampled populations, the Kerma people were overall nearest to theKushpopulations inUpper Nubia,theA-Group culturebearers ofLower Nubia,andEthiopians.

Contemporary issues

Further information:Nubian people

Nubia was divided between Egypt and Sudan after colonialism ended and theRepublic of Egyptwasestablishedin 1953, and theRepublic of Sudanseceded from Egypt in 1956.

In the early-1970s, many Egyptian and Sudanese Nubians were forcibly relocated to make room forLake Nasserafterdamswere constructed atAswan.Nubian villages can be found north of Aswan on the west bank of the Nile and onElephantine Island.Many Nubians now live in large cities likeCairoandKhartoum.

Ancient DNA

In 2014, a male infant skeleton was recovered during an excavation in what is present-day Wadi Halfa from the Christian Period (500-1400 C.E.), located near the Second Cataract of the Nile in the Republic of the Sudan. The results from the Principle component analysis (PCA) had the individual placed between African and European clusters. Furthermore, the individual was assigned to L5a1a, a branch of the ancient L5 haplogroup with origins in East Africa.

Sirak et al. 2021 obtained and analyzed the whole genomes of 66 individuals from the site ofKulubnartisituated in northern Nubia between the 2nd and 3rd cataract, near the modern Egyptian border, and dated to theChristian periodbetween 650 and 1000 CE. The samples were obtained from two cemeteries. The samples' genetic profile was found to be a mixture betweenWest EurasianandSub SaharanDinka-related ancestries, with ~60% West Eurasian related ancestry that likely came from ancient Egyptians but ultimately resembles that found inBronzeorIron AgeLevantines,and ~40% Dinka-related ancestry.

The two cemeteries showed minimal differences in their West Eurasian/Dinka ancestry proportions. These findings in addition to multiple cross cemetery relatives that the analyses have revealed indicate that people of both the R and S cemeteries were part of the same population despite the archaeological and anthropological differences between the two burials showing social stratification.

Modern Nubians, despite their superficial resemblance to the Kulubnarti Nubians on the PCA, were not found to be descended from Kulubnarti Nubians without additional later admixtures. Modern Nubians were found to have an increase in Sub-Saharan ancestry along with a change in their west Eurasian ancestry from that which was found in the ancient samples.

A sample from historic Lower Nubia, in the Nubian site of Sayala during the 3rd-6th Century AD, belonged to mtDNA haplogroup J1c.

In 2022, DNA was sequenced from the hair of a Kerma period individual (4000 BP), and the results revealed close genetic affinity to early pastoralists from the Rift Valley in eastern Africa during thePastoral Neolithic.

Nubian Images

• 
  Nubianterracottafemale figurine from the Neolithic period ca. 3500–3100 BCBrooklyn Museum
• 
  Nubian king with bow, Buhen Fortress, 1650 BC, Univ. of Chicago Museum
• 
  Nubian Tribute Presented to the King, Tomb of Huy MET DT221112
• 
  Nubians bringing tribute for King Tut, Tomb of Huy
• 
  Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal
• 
  Entrance to Great Enclosure,Musawwarat es-Sufra
• 
  Column and elephant – part of temple complex inMusawwarat es-Sufra
• 
  Pyramid of Amanishakheto
• 
  Jewelry ofKandakeAmanishakheto
• 
  Copy of relief fromNaqadepictingAmanitore(second from left),Natakamani(second from right) and two princes approaching a three-headedApedemak.
• 
  The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BC.National Museum of Sudan.
• 
  Bishop Petros, Christian Nubia
• 
  TheRelief of Gebel Sheikh Suleimanprobably shows the victory of an early Pharaoh, possiblyDjer,over A-Group Nubians circa 3000 BC.
• 
  Now gone Christian Nubian wall painting in theTemple of Kalabsha

See also

• Doukki Gel
• Kerma culture
• List of monarchs of Kerma
• Kingdom of Kush
• List of monarchs of Kush
• Napata
• Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt
• Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
• Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree
• Meroë
• Kandake,Queens of Meroe
• Military of ancient Nubia
• Nubian pyramids
• Nubiology
• Merowe Dam
• Aethiopia

Further reading

• Adams, William Y. (1977):Nubia: Corridor to Africa,London.
• Adams, William Y. (February–March 1980)."Nubia's corridor of time: From the kingdom of Kush to the triumph of Islam"(PDF).UNESCO Courrier.Victory in Nubia: The greatest archaeological rescue operation of all time: 25–29.
• Bell, Herman (2009):Paradise Lost: Nubia before the 1964 Hijra,DAL Group.
• "Black Pharaohs",National Geographic,Feb 2008
• Bulliet et al. (2001):Nubia, The Earth and Its Peoples,pp. 70–71, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
• Drower M. (1970):Nubia A Drowning Land,London: Longmans.
• Emberling, Geoff (2011):Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa.New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World.
• Fisher, Marjorie, et al. (2012):Ancient Nubia: African Kingdoms on the Nile.The American University in Cairo Press.
• Grainger, John D. (2010).The Syrian Wars.pp.281–328.ISBN9789004180505.
• Hassan, Yusuf Fadl (1973):The Arabs and the Sudan,Khartoum.
• Jennings, Anne (1995)The Nubians of West Aswan: Village Women in the Midst of Change,Lynne Reinner Publishers.
• O'Connor, David (1993):Ancient Nubia: Egypt's Rival in Africa,Philadelphia, The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.
• Raue, Dietrich (2019).Elephantine und Nubien vom 4.-2. Jahrtausend v. Chr.Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter.ISBN9783110501056.
• Thelwall, Robin (1982) 'Linguistic Aspects of Greater Nubian History', in Ehret, C. & Posnansky, M. (eds.)The Archeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History.Berkeley/Los Angeles, 39–56.
• Török, László (1997):The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization.Brill Academic Publishers.
• Valbelle, Dominique, andBonnet, Charles(2006):The Nubian Pharaohs.New York: The American University in Cairo Press.

External links

Media related toNubiaat Wikimedia Commons

• African Kingdoms
• Ancient Sudan Website^[usurped]
• Racism and the Rediscovery of Ancient Nubia
• Medieval Sai Project
• "Journey to Ethiopia, Eastern Sudan, and Nigritia"was written byPierre Trémauxin 1862–63. It features extensive descriptions and drawings of Nubia.
• 1960s Nubia Scrapbook
• Nubian Foundation for Preserving a Cultural Heritage