Occupation of the Baltic states

Occupation of the Baltic states

Part ofWorld War IIand theCold War
A protest sign from the 1970s calling on the United Nations to abolishSoviet colonialism in the Baltic states
Date	15 June 1940 – 6 September 1991(1940-06-15–1991-09-06) Military presence:28 September 1939 – 31 August 1994(1939-09-28–1994-08-31)
Location	Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania
Participants	Estonia Latvia Lithuania Soviet Union Nazi Germany
Outcome	Soviet occupationandannexationof Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (1940) German occupationand incorporation of the Baltic countries into theReichskomissariat Ostland(1941) Soviet re-occupation(1944) Restoration of Baltic countries' independence during theSinging Revolution(1990–91)

Theoccupation of the Baltic stateswas a period ofannexationof Estonia,LatviaandLithuaniabegun by theSoviet Unionin 1940, continued for three years byNazi Germanyafter it invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, and finally resumed by the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991.

The initialSoviet invasion and occupation of the Baltic statesbegan in June 1940 under theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact,made between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany in August 1939 before the outbreak ofWorld War II.The three independentBaltic countrieswere annexed as constituentRepublics of the Soviet Unionin August 1940. MostWestern countriesdid not recognise this annexation, and considered it illegal.In July 1941, theoccupation of the Baltic states by Nazi Germanytook place, just weeks after itsinvasion of the Soviet Union.The Third Reich incorporated them into itsReichskommissariat Ostland.In 1944, the Soviet Union recaptured most of the Baltic states as a result of theRed Army'sBaltic Offensive,trapping the remainingGerman forcesin theCourland Pocketuntil their formal surrender in May 1945.

During the1944–1991 Soviet occupationmany people from Russia and other parts of the former USSR were settled in the three Baltic countries, while the local languages, religion and customs were suppressed in an "extremely violent and traumatic" occupation.Colonization of the three Baltic countries included mass executions,deportationsandrepressionof the native population.

While there has been a broad international consensus that the Baltic states were illegally occupied and annexed,the Soviet Union never acknowledged that they were forcefully taken over.The post-Sovietgovernment of Russiamaintains the claim that the incorporations of Baltic states was in accordance withinternational law,and school textbooks state that the Baltic states voluntarily joined the Soviet Union after home-grown popularsocialist revolutions.As most Western governments maintained that Baltic sovereignty had not been legitimately overridden,they thus continued to recognise the Baltic states as sovereign political entities represented by theBaltic Legations,which functioned in Washington and elsewhere asgovernments in exile.

The Baltic states regainedde factoindependence in 1991 during thedissolution of the Soviet Union.Russia started to withdraw its troops from theBalticsstarting with Lithuania in August 1993. However, it was a violent process and Soviet forces killed several Latvians and Lithuanians.The full withdrawal of troops deployed by Moscow ended in August 1994.Russia officially ended its military presence in the Baltics in August 1998 by decommissioning theSkrunda-1radar station in Latvia. The dismantled installations were repatriated to Russia and the site returned to Latvian control, with the last Russian soldier leaving Baltic soil in October 1999.

Background

Main article:Background of the occupation of the Baltic states

Planned and actual divisions of Europe, according to theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact,with later adjustments

Early in the morning of 24 August 1939, the Soviet Union and Germany signed a ten-year non-aggression pact, called theMolotov–Ribbentrop pact.The pact contained a secret protocol by which the states ofNorthernandEastern Europewere divided into German and Soviet "spheres of influence".In the north,Finland,EstoniaandLatviawere assigned to the Soviet sphere.Poland was to be partitioned in the event of its "political rearrangement" —the areas east of theNarev,VistulaandSan Riversgoing to the Soviet Union while Germany would occupy the west.Lithuania, adjacent toEast Prussia,would be in the German sphere of influence, although a second secret protocol agreed in September 1939 assigned the majority of Lithuanian territory to the Soviet Union.Under the secret protocol, Lithuania would regain its historical capitalVilnius,previously subjugated during the inter-war period byPoland.

Following the end of theSoviet invasion of Polandon 6 October, the Soviets pressured Finland and the Baltic states to conclude mutual assistance treaties. The Soviets questioned the neutrality of Estonia after theescape of an interned Polish submarineon 18 September. On 24 September, the Estonian foreign minister was given anultimatum:The Soviets demanded a treaty of mutual assistance to establish military bases in Estonia.The Estonians were coerced to accept naval, air and army bases on two Estonian islands and at the port ofPaldiski.The corresponding agreement was signed on 28 September 1939. Latvia followed on 5 October 1939 and Lithuania shortly thereafter, on 10 October 1939. The agreements permitted the Soviet Union to establish military bases on the Baltic states' territory for the duration of the European warand to station 25,000 Soviet soldiers inEstonia,30,000 inLatviaand 20,000 inLithuaniastarting October 1939.

Soviet occupation and annexation (1940–1941)

Main article:Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)

Soldiers of theRed Armyenter the territory ofLithuaniaduring the first Soviet occupation of Lithuania in 1940.

In May 1940, the Soviets turned to the idea of direct military intervention, but still intended to rule throughpuppet regimes.Their model was theFinnish Democratic Republic,a puppet regime set up by the Soviets on the first day of theWinter War.The Soviets organised a press campaign against the allegedly pro-Allied sympathies of the Baltic governments. In May 1940, the Germansinvaded France,which was overrun and occupied a month later. In late May and early June 1940, the Baltic states were accused of military collaboration against the Soviet Union by holding meetings the previous winter.On 15 June 1940, the Lithuanian government was extorted toagree to the Soviet ultimatumand permit the entry of an unspecified number of Soviet troops. PresidentAntanas Smetonaproposed armed resistance to the Soviets but the government refused,proposing their own candidate to lead the regime.However, the Soviets refused this proposal and sentVladimir Dekanozovto take charge while the Red Army occupied the state.

Schematics of the Soviet military blockade and invasion of Estonia in 1940 (Russian State Naval Archives)

On 16 June 1940, Latvia and Estonia also received ultimata. The Red Army occupied the two remaining Baltic states shortly thereafter. The Soviets dispatchedAndrey Vyshinskyto oversee the takeover of Latvia andAndrey Zhdanovto Estonia. On 18 and 21 June 1940, new "popular front"governments were formed in each Baltic country, made up of Communists andfellow travelers.Under Soviet surveillance, the new governments arrangedrigged electionsfor new "people's assemblies." Voters were presented with a single list, and no opposition movements were allowed to file candidates. To get the required turnout to 99.6%, votes were forged.A month later when the new assemblies met their sole item of business for each of them was a resolution to join the Soviet Union. In each case, the resolution passed byacclamation.TheSupreme Soviet of the Soviet Unionduly accepted the requests in August, thus sanctioning them under Soviet law.Lithuaniawas incorporated into the Soviet Union on 3 August,Latviaon 5 August, andEstoniaon 6 August 1940.Thedeposedpresidents of Estonia and Latvia,Konstantin PätsandKārlis Ulmanis,were deported to the USSR and imprisoned. They died later inthe Tver regionandCentral Asiarespectively. In June 1941, the new Soviet governments carried outmass deportationsof "enemies of the people".Estonia alone lost an estimated 60,000 citizens.Consequently, many Balts initially greeted the Germans as liberators when theyinvadeda week later.

Soviet propaganda demonstration inLiepāja,1940. Posters in Russian say:We demand the full accession to the USSR!.

The Soviet Union immediately started to erect border fortifications along its newly acquired western border — the so-calledMolotov Line.

German occupation (1941–1945)

Main article:German occupation of the Baltic states during World War II

Ostland province and the Holocaust

See also:The Holocaust in Estonia,The Holocaust in Latvia,andThe Holocaust in Lithuania

A cross commemorating the victims of theRainiai massacre,committed by the Soviet NKVD on 24–25 June 1941

On 22 June 1941 the Germansinvaded the Soviet Union.The Baltic states, recently Sovietized by threats, force, and fraud, generally welcomed the German armed forces.In Lithuania, a revolt broke out and an independent provisional government was established. As the German armies approachedRigaandTallinn,attempts to reestablish national governments were made. Baltic citizens hoped that the Germans would reestablish Baltic independence. Such hopes soon evaporated and Baltic cooperation became less forthright or ceased altogether.The Germans aimed to annex the Baltic territories into theThird Reichwhere "suitable elements" would be assimilated and "unsuitable elements" exterminated. In practice, the implementation of occupation policy was more complex; for administrative convenience the Baltic states were included withBelorussiain theReichskommissariat Ostland.The area was governed byHinrich Lohsewho was obsessed with bureaucratic regulations.The Baltic area was the only eastern region intended to become a full province of the Third Reich.

Einsatzkommandoexecution in Lithuania

Nazi racial attitudesto the peoples of the three Baltic countries differed between Nazi authorities. In practice, racial policies were directed not against the majority of Balts but rather against theJews.Large numbers of Jews were living in the major cities, notably inVilnius,KaunasandRiga.The Germanmobile killing unitsslaughtered hundreds of thousands of Jews;Einsatzgruppe A,assigned to the Baltic area, was the most effective of four units.German policy forced the Jews intoghettos.In 1943Heinrich Himmlerordered his forces to liquidate the ghettos and to transfer the survivors toconcentration camps.Some Latvians and Lithuanian conscripts collaborated actively in the killing of Jews, and the Nazis managed to provokepogromslocally, especially in Lithuania.Only about 75 percent ofEstonianand 10 percent ofLatvianandLithuanian Jewssurvived the war. However, for the majority of Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians, the German rule was less harsh than Soviet rule had been, and it was less brutal than German occupations elsewhere in eastern Europe.Localpuppet regimesperformed administrative tasks and schools were permitted to function. However, most people were denied the right to own land or businesses.

Baltic nationals within the Soviet forces

Victims of SovietNKVDinTartu,Estonia(1941)

The Soviet administration had forcibly incorporated the Baltic national armies at the wake of the occupation in 1940. Most of the senior officers were arrested and many of them murdered.During the German invasion, the Soviets conducted a forced general mobilisation that took place in violation of theinternational law.Under theGeneva Conventions,this act of violence is seen as a grave breach and war crime, because the mobilised men were treated as arrestants from the very beginning. In comparison with the general mobilisation proclaimed in the Soviet Union, the age range was extended by 9 years in the Baltics; all reserve officers were also taken. The aim was to deport all men capable to fight to Russia, where they were sent toconvict camps.Almost half of them perished because of the transportation conditions, slave labour, hunger, diseases, and the repressive measures of theNKVD.In addition,destruction battalionswere formed under the command of the NKVD.Hence, Baltic nationals fought in both German and Soviet army ranks. There was the 201st Latvian Rifle Division. The 308th Latvian Rifle Division was awarded the Red Banner Order after the expulsion of the Germans from Riga in the autumn of 1944.

The Red Army's 16th Rifle Division fighting in theOryol Oblastin the summer of 1943

An estimated 60,000 Lithuanians were drafted into the Red Army.During 1940, on the basis of disbanded Lithuanian Army, Soviet authorities organized 29th Territorial Rifle Corps. Decrease in quality of life and service conditions, forceful indoctrination of Communist ideology, caused discontent of recently Sovietized military units. Soviet authorities responded with repressions against Lithuanian officers of the 29th Corps, arresting over 100 officers and soldiers and subsequently executing around 20 in Autumn 1940. By that time allegedly near 3,200 officers and soldiers of 29th Corps were considered "politically unreliable". Due to high tensions and soldiers' discontent the 26th Cavalry Regiment was disbanded. During the 1941June deportationsover 320 officers and soldiers of 29th Corps were arrested and deported to concentration camps or executed. The 29th Corps collapsed with the German invasion into Soviet Union: on June 25–26 a rebellion broke in its 184th Rifle Division. The other division of the 29th Corps, the 179th Rifle Division lost most of its soldiers during the retreat from Germans mostly to deserting of its soldiers. A total of less than 1,500 soldiers from initial strength of around 12,000 reached the area of Pskov by August 1941. By the second part of 1942, most of Lithuanians remaining in the Soviet ranks as well as male war refugees from Lithuania were organized into16th Rifle Divisionduring its second formation. 16th Rifle Division, despite officially called "Lithuanian" and mostly commanded by officers of Lithuanian origin, includingAdolfas Urbšas,was ethnically very mixed, with up to 1/4 of its personnel made of Jews and thus being the largest Jew formation of Soviet Army. Popular joke of those years said that 16th Division is called Lithuanian, because there are 16 Lithuanians among its ranks.

The 7000-strong 22nd Estonian Territorial Rifle Corps got heavily beaten in the battles aroundPorkhovduring the German invasion in summer 1941, as 2000 were killed or wounded in action, and 4500 surrendered. The 25,000—30,000 strong8th Estonian Rifle Corpslost 3/4 of its troops in theBattle of Velikiye Lukiin winter 1942/43. It participated in thecapture of Tallinnin September 1944.About 20,000 Lithuanians, 25,000 Estonians, and 5000 Latvians died in the ranks of the Red Army and labor battalions.

Baltic nationals in the German forces

Latvian SS-Legionparade through Riga before deploying to the Eastern Front. December 1943.

The Nazi administration also conscripted Baltic nationals into the German armies. TheLithuanian Territorial Defense Force,composed of volunteers, was formed in 1944. The LTDF reached a size of roughly 10,000 men. Its goal was to fight the approaching Red Army, provide security and conduct anti-partisan operations within the territory claimed by Lithuanians. After brief engagements againstSovietandPolishpartisans, the force self-disbanded.Its leaders were arrested and sent toNazi concentration camps,and many of members were executed by the Nazis.Latvian Legion,created in 1943, consisted of two conscripted divisions of the Waffen-SS. On 1 July 1944 the Latvian Legion had 87,550 men. Another 23,000 Latvians were serving as Wehrmacht "auxiliaries".Among other battles, they participated in theSiege of Leningrad,in theCourland Pocketfighting,the defence of thePomeranian Wall,at theVelikaya Riverfor Hill "93,4" and in thedefence of Berlin.The20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian)was formed in January 1944 through conscription. Consisting of 38,000 men, it took part in theBattle of Narva,theBattle of Tannenberg Line,theBattle of Tartu,andOperation Aster.

Attempts to restore independence and the Soviet offensive of 1944

Main article:Occupation and annexation of the Baltic states by the Soviet Union (1944)

Lithuanian rebelslead the disarmed soldiers of theRed Armyin Kaunas.

There were several attempts to restoreindependenceduring the occupation. On 22 June 1941 theLithuanians overthrew Soviet ruletwo days before theWehrmachtarrived in Kaunas, where the Germans then allowed aProvisional Governmentto function for over a month.TheLatvian Central Councilwas set up as an underground organisation in 1943, but it was destroyed by theGestapoin 1945. In Estonia in 1941,Jüri Uluotsproposed restoration of independence; later, by 1944, he had become a key figure in the secretNational Committee.In September 1944, Uluots briefly became acting president of independent Estonia.Unlike theFrenchand thePoles,the Baltic states had nogovernments in exilelocated in the West. Consequently, Great Britain and the United States lacked any interest in the Baltic cause while the war against Germany remained undecided.The discovery of theKatyn massacrein 1943 and callous conduct towards theWarsaw uprisingin 1944 had cast shadows on relations; nevertheless, all three victors still displayed solidarity at theYalta conferencein 1945.

By 1 March 1944 thesiege of Leningradwas over and Soviet troops wereon the border with Estonia.The Soviets launched theBaltic Offensive,a twofold military-political operation to rout German forces, on 14 September. On 16 September theHigh Command of the German Armyissued a plan in which Estonian forces would cover the German withdrawal.The Soviets soon reached the Estonian capital Tallinn, where theNKVD's first mission was to stop anyone escaping from the state; however, many refugees did manage to escape to the West. The NKVD also targeted the members of theNational Committee of the Republic of Estonia.German and Latvian forces remained trapped in the Courland Pocket until the end of the war, capitulating on 10 May 1945.

Second Soviet occupation (1944–1991)

Main articles:Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)andSoviet occupation of the Baltic states (1944)

Resistance and deportations

The plan of deportations of the civilian population in Lithuania during theOperation Priboicreated by the SovietMGB

Lithuanian resistance fighters from theTauras military districtin 1945

After reoccupying the Baltic states, the Soviets implemented a program ofsovietization,which was achieved through large-scaleindustrialisationrather than by overt attacks on culture, religion or freedom of expression.The Soviets carried out massivedeportationsto eliminate any resistance tocollectivisationor support ofpartisans.Baltic partisans, such as theForest Brothers,continued to resist Soviet rule through armed struggle for a number of years.

The Soviets had previously carried out mass deportations in 1940–41, but the deportations between 1944 and 1952 were even greater.In March 1949 alone, the top Soviet authorities organiseda mass deportationof 90,000 Baltic nationals.

The total number deported in 1944–55 has been estimated at over half a million: 124,000 inEstonia,136,000 in Latvia and 245,000 in Lithuania.

The estimated death toll among Lithuanian deportees between 1945 and 1958 was 20,000, including 5,000 children.

The deportees were allowed to return afterNikita Khrushchev'ssecret speechin 1956 denouncing the excesses ofStalinism,however many did not survive their years of exile inSiberia.After the war, the Sovietsoutlined new bordersfor the Baltic republics.Lithuaniagained the regions of Vilnius and Klaipėda while theRussian SFSRannexed territory from the eastern parts ofEstonia(5% of prewar territory) andLatvia(2%).

Industrialization and immigration

The Soviets made largecapital investmentsfor energy resources and the manufacture of industrial and agricultural products. The purpose was to integrate the Baltic economies into the larger Soviet economic sphere.In all three republics, manufacturing industry was developed resulting in some of the best industrial complexes in the sphere of electronics and textile production. The rural economy suffered from the lack of investments and the collectivization.Baltic urban areas had been damaged during wartime and it took ten years to recuperate housing losses. New constructions were often of poor quality and ethnic Russian immigrants were favored in housing.Estonia and Latvia received large-scale immigration of industrial workers from other parts of the Soviet Union that changed thedemographicsdramatically. Lithuania also received immigration but on a smaller scale.

Antanas Sniečkus,the leader of theCommunist Party of Lithuaniafrom 1940 to 1974

Ethnic Estonians constituted 88 percent before the war, but in 1970 the figure dropped to 60 percent. Ethnic Latvians constituted 75 percent, but the figure dropped 57 percent in 1970 and further down to 50.7 percent in 1989. In contrast, the drop in Lithuania was only 4 percent.Baltic communists had supported and participated the 1917October Revolutionin Russia. However, many of them were killed during theGreat Purgein the 1930s. The new regimes of 1944 were established mostly by native communists who had fought in theRed Army.However, the Soviets also imported ethnic Russians to fill political, administrative and managerial posts.

Restorations of independence

Pro-independence Lithuanians demonstrating inŠiauliai,January 1990

Theperiod of stagnationbrought the crisis of the Soviet system. The new Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachevcame to power in 1985 and responded withglasnostandperestroika.They were attempts to reform the Soviet system from above to avoid revolution from below. The reforms occasioned the reawakening of nationalism in the Baltic republics.The first major demonstrations against the environment wereRigain November 1986 and the following spring inTallinn.Small successful protests encouraged key individuals and by the end of 1988 the reform wing had gained the decisive positions in the Baltic republics.At the same time, coalitions of reformists and populistforces assembled under the Popular Fronts.The Supreme Soviet of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic made theEstonian languagethestate languageagain in January 1989, and similar legislation was passed in Latvia and Lithuania soon after. The Baltic republics declared their aim for sovereignty: Estonia in November 1988, Lithuania in May 1989 and Latvia in July 1989.TheBaltic Way,that took place on 23 August 1989, became the biggest manifestation of opposition to the Soviet rule.In December 1989, theCongress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Unioncondemned the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and its secret protocol as "legally untenable and invalid."

Unarmed Lithuanian citizen standing against a Soviet tank during theJanuary Events

On 11 March 1990 the Lithuanian Supreme Sovietdeclared Lithuania's independence.Pro-independence candidates had received an overwhelming majority in the Supreme Soviet elections held earlier that year.On 30 March 1990, seeing full restoration of independence not yet feasible due to large Soviet presence, the Estonian Supreme Soviet declared the Soviet Union an occupying power and announced the start of a transitional period to independence. On 4 May 1990, the Latvian Supreme Soviet made a similar declaration.The Soviet Union immediately condemned all three declarations as illegal, saying that they had to go through the process of secession outlined in theSoviet Constitution of 1977.However, the Baltic states argued that the entire occupation process violated both international law and their own law. Therefore, they argued, they were merely reasserting an independence that still existed under international law.

By mid-June, after unsuccessfuleconomic blockade of Lithuania,the Soviets started negotiations with Lithuania and the other two Baltic republics. The Soviets had a bigger challenge elsewhere, as the Russian Federal Republicproclaimed sovereigntyin June.Simultaneously the Baltic republics also started to negotiate directly with the Russian Federal Republic.After the failed negotiations the Soviets made a dramatic but failed attempt to break the deadlock and sent in military troops killing twenty and injuring hundreds of civilians in what became known as the "Vilnius massacre"in Lithuania and"The Barricades"in Latvia during January 1991.In August 1991, the hard-line membersattempted to take controlof the Soviet Union. A day after the coup on 21 August, the Estonians proclaimed full independence, after anindependence referendumwas held inEstoniaon 3 March 1991,alongside asimilar referenduminLatviathe same month. It was approved by 78.4% of voters with an 82.9% turnout. Independence was restored by the Estonian Supreme Council on the night of 20 August.The Latvian parliament made similar a declaration on the same day. The coup failed but thecollapse of the Soviet Unionbecame unavoidable.After the coup collapsed, the Soviet government recognised the independence of all three Baltic states on 6 September 1991.

Withdrawal of Russian troops and decommissioning the radars

The Russian Federation assumed the burden and the subsequent withdrawal of the occupation force, consisting of about 150,000 former Soviet, now Russian, troops stationed in the Baltic states.In 1992 there were still 120,000 Russian troops there,as well as a large number of military pensioners, particularly in Estonia and Latvia.

During the period of negotiations, Russia hoped to retain facilities such as theLiepājanaval base, theSkrundaanti-ballistic missile radar station, theVentspilsspace-monitoring station in Latvia and thePaldiskisubmarine base in Estonia, as well as transit rights toKaliningradthrough Lithuania.

Contention arose when Russia threatened to keep its troops where they were. Moscow tied its concessions to specific legislation guaranteeing the civil rights of ethnic Russians, which was seen as an implied threat in the West, in the U.N. General Assembly and by Baltic leaders, who viewed it as Russian imperialism.

Lithuania was the first to see complete the withdrawal of Russian troops—on 31 August 1993—owing in part to the Kaliningrad issue.

Subsequent agreements to withdraw troops from Latvia were signed on 30 April 1994, and from Estonia on 26 July 1994.Continued linkage on the part of Russia resulted in a threat by the U.S. Senate in mid-July to halt all aid to Russia in case the forces were not withdrawn by the end of August.Final withdrawal was completed on 31 August 1994.Some Russian troops remained stationed in Estonia inPaldiskiuntil the Russian military base was dismantled and the nuclear reactors suspended operations on 26 September 1995.Russia operated theSkrunda-1radar station until it was decommissioned on 31 August 1998. The Russian Government then had to dismantle and remove the radar equipment; this work was completed by October 1999 when the site was returned to Latvia.The last Russian soldier left the region that month, marking a symbolic end to the Russian military presence on Baltic soil.

Civilian toll

Monument to Lithuanian victims of Soviet occupation inGediminas Avenue,Vilnius.
54°41′18.9″N25°16′14.0″E.

During the1940–1941and1944–1991occupations 605,000 inhabitants of the three countries in total were either killed or deported (135,000 Estonians, 170,000 Latvians and 320,000 Lithuanians). Their properties and personal belonging were confiscated and given to newly arrived colonists –economic migrants,Soviet military,NKVDpersonnel, as well as functionaries of theCommunist Party.

The estimated human costs of the occupations are presented in the table below.

Period/action	Estonia	Latvia	Lithuania
Population	1,126,413 (1934)	1,905,000 (1935)	2,575,400 (1938)
First Soviet Occupation
June 1941 deportation	9,267 (2,409 executed)	15,424 (9,400 died en route)	17,500
Victims of repressions (arrest, torture, political trials imprisonment or other sanctions)	8,000	21,000	12,900
Extrajudicial executions	2,000	Not known	3,000
Nazi Occupation
Mass killing of local minorities	992 Jews 300 Roma	70,000 Jews 1,900 Roma	196,000 Jews ~4,000 Roma
Killing of Jews from outside	8,000	20,000	Not known
Killing of other civilians	7,000	16,300	45,000
Forced labour	3,000	16,800	36,500
Second Soviet Occupation
Operation Priboi 1948–49	1949: 20,702 3,000 died en route	1949: 42,231 8,000 died en route	1948: 41,000 1949: 32,735
Other deportations between 1945 and 1956	650	1,700	59,200
Arrests and political imprisonment	30,000 11,000 perished	32,000	186,000
Post-war partisans killed or imprisoned	8,468 4,000 killed	8,000 3,000 killed	21,500

Aftermath

See also:Baltic Russians,Non-citizens (Latvia),andNon-citizens (Estonia)

The Soviet Union and its successors have never paid reparations to the Baltic states.

In the years following the reestablishment of Baltic independence, tensions have remained between indigenous Balts and Russian-speaking population in Estonia and Latvia. The UN noted the discriminatory position of the non-citizens in LatviaandHuman Rights Watchcontended that the policy of Estonia towards its non-citizens was discriminatory.According to Peter Elswege, a lack of attention to the rights of Russian-speaking and stateless individuals in the Baltic states has been noted by some experts, although all international organisations agree that no forms of systematic discrimination towards the Russian-speaking and often stateless population can be observed.

Nils Ušakovs,the first ethnic Russian mayor ofRiga,in independentLatvia

In 1993, Estonia was noted for having problems concerning the successful integration of some who werepermanent residentsat the time Estonia gained independence.The requirements for getting citizenship in Estonia were considered "relatively liberal" in 1996.According to a 2008 report of Special Rapporteur on racism toUnited Nations Human Rights Councilthe representatives of the Russian speaking communities in Estonia say the most important form of discrimination in Estonia is not ethnic, but rather language-based (Para. 56). The rapporteur made several recommendations, including strengthening the Chancellor of Justice,making it easier for persons of undefined nationality to obtain citizenship, and opening a discussion on language policy to elaborate strategies better reflecting the multilingual character of the society (paras. 89–92).Estonia has been criticized by the UNCommittee on the Elimination of Racial Discriminationstrong emphasis on Estonian language in the stateIntegration strategy;usage ofpunitive approachfor promoting Estonian language; restrictions of the usage of minority language inpublic services;low level of minorityrepresentationin political life; persistently high number of persons withundetermined citizenship,etc.

According to Israeli authorYaël Ronenof the Minerva Center for Human Rights at theHebrew University of Jerusalem,illegal regimes typically take measures to change the demographic structure of the territory held by the regime, usually via two methods: the forced removal of the local population and transfer their own populations into the territory.He cites the case of the Baltic states as an example of where this phenomenon has occurred, with the deportations of 1949 combined with large waves of immigration in 1945–50 and 1961–70.When the illegal regime transitioned to a lawful regime in 1991, the status of thesesettlersbecame an issue.

AuthorAliide Naylornotes the lingering legacy of Soviet modernist architecture in the region, with many iconic Soviet structures in the Baltic states falling into disrepair or being demolished completely. There are ongoing debates surrounding their future.

Legal and historical perspectives

The Baltic states' governments themselves,the United Statesand its courts of law,theEuropean Parliament,theEuropean Court of Human Rightsand theUnited Nations Human Rights Councilhave all stated that these three countries were invaded, occupied and illegally incorporated into the Soviet Union under provisions of the 1939Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.There followed occupation byNazi Germany from 1941 to 1944and then again occupation by the Soviet Union from 1944 to 1991.This policy of non-recognition has given rise to the principle oflegal continuity of the Baltic states,which holds thatde jure,or as a matter of law, the Baltic states remained independent states under illegal occupation throughout the period from 1940 to 1991.

However, the Soviet Union never formally acknowledged that its presence in the Baltics was an occupation or that it had annexed these statesand considered theEstonian Soviet Socialist Republic,Latvian Soviet Socialist RepublicandLithuanian Soviet Socialist Republicsthree of itsconstituent republics.On the other hand, theRussian Soviet Federative Socialist Republicrecognized in 1991 that the events of 1940 were an "annexation".

Historically revisionistRussianhistoriographyand school textbooks continue to maintain that the Baltic states voluntarily joined the Soviet Union after their each of their peoples carried outsocialist revolutionsindependent of Soviet influence.The post-Sovietgovernment of Russiaand its state officials insist that incorporation of the Baltic states was in accordance withinternational lawand gainedde jurerecognition by the agreements made in the February 1945Yaltaand the July–August 1945Potsdam conferencesand by the 1975Helsinki Accords,which declared the inviolability of existing frontiers.However, this claim has been described as both "nefarious" and a "horrifying insult" — part of an intentional propaganda campaign to spread a myth of Baltic "incorporation". Russia also agreed to Europe's demand to "assist persons deported from the occupied Baltic states" upon joining theCouncil of Europein 1996.Also, when the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic signed a separate treaty with Lithuania in 1991, it acknowledged the 1940 annexation as a violation of Lithuanian sovereignty and recognised thede jurecontinuity of the Lithuanian state.

State continuity of the Baltic states

Main article:State continuity of the Baltic states

The Baltic claim of continuity with the pre-war republics has been accepted by most Western powers.As a consequence of the policy of non-recognition of the Soviet seizure of these countries,combined with the resistance by the Baltic people to the Soviet regime, the uninterrupted functioning of rudimentary state organs in exile in combination with the fundamental legal principle ofex injuria jus non oritur,that no legal benefit can be derived from an illegal act, the seizure of the Baltic states was judged to be illegalthus sovereign title never passed to the Soviet Union and the Baltic states continued to exist as subjects of international law.

The official position of Russia, which chose in 1991 to be the legal and direct successor of the USSR,is that Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania joined the Soviet Union freely and of their own accord in 1940, and, with the dissolution of the USSR, these countries became newly created entities in 1991. Russia's stance is based upon the desire to avoid financial liability, since acknowledging the Soviet occupation would set the stage for future compensation claims from the Baltic states.

Soviet and Russian historiography

Main article:Baltic states in Soviet historiography

Soviet historians saw the 1940 annexation as a voluntary entry into the USSR by the Balts.Soviet historiographypromoted the interests of Russia and the USSR in the Baltic area, and it reflected the belief of most Russians that they had moral and historical rights to control and toRussianizethe entire former Russian empire.To Soviet historians, the 1940 annexation was not only a voluntary entry but was also the natural thing to do. This concept taught that the military security of mother Russia was solidified and that nothing could argue against it.

Soviet point of view

Prior toperestroika,the Soviet Union denied the existence of the secret protocols and viewed the events of 1939–40 as follows:

• thegovernment of the Soviet Unionsuggested that the governments of the Baltic countries conclude mutual assistance treaties between the countries.
• Pressure from working people forced the governments of the Baltic countries to accept this suggestion. The pacts were then signed
• These pacts allowed the USSR to station a limited number ofRed Armyunits in the Baltic countries.
• Economic difficulties and dissatisfaction of the populace with Baltic government policies had impeded fulfilment of the pacts, and the populace revolted against the Baltic governments' political orientation towards Germany in a revolution in June 1940.
• To guarantee fulfilment of the pact additional military units entered the Baltic countries, welcomed by workers, who demanded the resignations of the governments.
• In June workers demonstrated under the leadership of the Communist parties of the Baltic countries.
• The fascist governments were overthrown, and workers' governments formed.
• In July 1940, elections for Baltic parliaments were held.
• The "Working People's Unions", created by the Communist parties, received the majority of the votes.
• The parliaments adopted declarations restoring Soviet powers in Baltic countries and proclaimed the Soviet Socialist Republics. Declarations of Estonia's, Latvia's and Lithuania's wishes to join theUSSRwere adopted and theSupreme Soviet of the USSRwas petitioned accordingly.
• The requests were approved by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

The Stalin-editedFalsifiers of History,published in 1948, says the June 1940 invasions were needed because "[p]acts had been concluded with the Baltic States, but there were as yet no Soviet troops there capable of holding the defences".It also states regarding those invasions that "[o]nly enemies of democracy or people who had lost their senses could describe those actions of the Soviet Government as aggression".

In the reassessment of Soviet history duringperestroika,the USSR condemned the 1939 secret protocol between itself and Germany that led to the invasion and occupations in the Baltic countries.

Russian historiography in the post-Soviet era

During the Soviet era, there was relatively little interest in the history of the Baltic states, which historians generally treated as a single entity due to the uniformity of Soviet policy in these territories.

Since the fall of the Soviet Union, two general camps have evolved in Russian historiography. One, the liberal-democratic (либерально-демократическое), condemns Stalin's actions and the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact and does not consider the Baltic states as having joined the USSR voluntarily. The other, the national-patriotic (национально-патриотическое), contends that theMolotov–Ribbentrop pactwas necessary to the security of the Soviet Union, that the Baltics' joining the USSR was the will of the proletariat—both in line with the politics of the Soviet period, "the 'need to ensure the security of the USSR', 'people's revolution' and 'joining voluntarily'" —and that supporters of Baltic independence were the operatives of western intelligence agencies seeking to topple the USSR.

Soviet-Russian historianVilnis Sīpolsargues that Stalin's ultimatums of 1940 were defensive measures taken against of the German threat and had no connection with the 'socialist revolutions' in the Baltic states.The arguments that the USSR had to annex the Baltic states in order to defend the security of those countries and to avoid German invasion into the three republics can also be found in the college textbook "The Modern History of Fatherland".

Sergey Chernichenko,a jurist and vice-president of the Russian Association of International Law, argues there was no declared state of war between the Baltic states and the Soviet Union in 1940, and that Soviet troops occupied the Baltic states with their agreement, and also that USSR violation of prior treaty provisions did not constitute occupation. Subsequent annexation was neither an act of aggression nor forcible and was completely legal according to international law as of 1940. Accusations of "deportation" of Baltic nationals by the Soviet Union are therefore baseless, he says, as individuals cannot be deported within their own country. He claims theWaffen-SSwas being convicted at Nuremberg as a criminal organization and their commemoration in the "openly encouraged pro-Nazi" (откровенно поощряются пронацистские) Baltics as heroes seeking to liberate the Baltics from the Soviets) is an act of "nationalistic blindness" (националистическое ослепление). With regard to the current situation in the Baltics, Chernichenko contends the "theory of occupation" is the official thesis used to justify the "discrimination of Russian-speaking inhabitants" in Estonia and Latvia and prophesies the three Baltic governments will fail in their "attempt to rewrite history".

According to the revisionist historianOleg Platonov"from the point of view of the national interests of Russia, unification was historically just, as it returned to the composition of the state ancient Russian lands, albeit partially inhabited by other peoples". The Molotov–Ribbentrop pact and protocols, including the dismemberment of Poland, merely redressed the tearing away from Russia of its historical territories by "anti-Russian revolution" and "foreign intervention".

On the other hand, Professor and Dean of the School of International Relations and Vice-Rector ofSaint Petersburg State University,Konstantin K. Khudoleyviews the 1940 annexation of the Baltic states as involuntary. He considers the elections were not free and fair and the decisions of thenewly elected parliamentsto join the Soviet Union cannot be considered legitimate as these decisions were not approved by the upper chambers of the parliaments of the respective Baltic states. He also contends that the annexation of the Baltic states had no military value in defence of possible German aggression, as it bolstered anti-Soviet public opinion in future allies Britain and the US and turned the native populations against the Soviet Union: the subsequent guerrilla movement in the Baltic states after the Second World War caused domestic problems for the Soviet Union.

Position of the Russian Federation

With the advent ofPerestroikaand its reassessment of Soviet history, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in 1989 condemned the 1939secret protocolbetween Germany and the Soviet Union that had led to the division of Eastern Europe and the invasion and occupation of the three Baltic countries.

While this action did not state the Soviet presence in the Baltics was an occupation, the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic and Republic of Lithuania affirmed so in a subsequent agreement in the midst of the collapse of theSoviet Union.Russia, in the preamble of its 29 July 1991, "Treaty Between the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic and the Republic of Lithuania on the Basis for Relations between States", declared that once the USSR had eliminated the consequences of the 1940 annexation which violated Lithuania's sovereignty,Lithuania–Russia relationswould further improve.

However, Russia's current official position directly contradicts its earlier rapprochement with Lithuaniaas well as its signature of membership to theCouncil of Europe,where it agreed to the obligations and commitments including "iv. as regards the compensation for those persons deported from theoccupied Baltic statesand the descendants of deportees, as stated in Opinion No. 193 (1996), paragraph 7.xii, to settle these issues as quickly as possible.... ".The Russian government and state officials maintain now that the Soviet annexation of the Baltic states was legitimateand that the Soviet Union liberated the countries from the Nazis.They assert that the Soviet troops initially entered the Baltic countries in 1940 following agreements and the consent of the Baltic governments. Their position is that the USSR was not in a state of war or engaged in combat activities on the territories of the three Baltic states, therefore, the word "occupation" cannot be used."The assertions about [the] 'occupation' by the Soviet Union and the related claims ignore all legal, historical and political realities, and are therefore utterly groundless".—Russian Foreign Ministry.

This particular Russian viewpoint is called the "Myth of 1939–40" by international affairs professor David Mendeloff,who states that the assertion that Soviet Union neither "occupied" the Baltic states in 1939 nor "annexed" them the following year is widely held and deeply embedded in Russian historical consciousness.

Treaties affecting USSR–Baltic relations

Main article:Baltic–Soviet relations

The Baltic states proclaimed independence after the signing of the Armistice, andBolshevik Russiainvaded at the end of 1918.Izvestiawrote in its 25 December 1918, issue: "Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania are directly on the road from Russia to Western Europe and therefore a hindrance to our revolutions... This separating wall has to be destroyed". Bolshevik Russia, however, did not gain control of the Baltic States and in 1920 concluded peace treaties with all three of them. Subsequently, at the initiative of the Soviet Union,additional non-aggression treaties were concluded with all three Baltic States:

• Peace treaties
• Non-aggression treaties
• Kellogg-Briand Pact and Litvinov's Pact
• The Convention for the Definition of Aggression
• The Pacts of Mutual Assistance
• Treaties the USSR signed between 1940 and 1945

Timeline

Main article:Timeline of the occupation of the Baltic states

See also

• Kersten Committee
• January 1991 eventsin the aftermath of the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania, resulting in deaths and injuries
• Museum of Occupations,Tallinn, a project by the Kistler-Ritso Estonian Foundation
• Occupations of Latvia
• Population transfer in the Soviet Union
• Russia involvement in regime change
• State continuity of the Baltic states
• Territorial changes of the Baltic states
• United States resolution on the 90th anniversary of the Latvian Republic
• Welles Declaration

Bibliography

• Aust, Anthony (2005).Handbook of International Law.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521530347.
• Bellamy, Chris (2007).Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War.Alfred a Knopf Inc.ISBN978-0375410864.
• Brecher, Michael; Jonathan Wilkenfeld (1997).A Study of Crisis.University of Michigan Press. p. 596.ISBN978-0472108060.Archivedfrom the original on 10 February 2023.Retrieved9 September2020.
• Frucht, Richard (2005).Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture.ABC-CLIO. p. 132.ISBN978-1576078006.Archivedfrom the original on 21 January 2023.Retrieved9 September2020.
• Gerner, Kristian; Hedlund, Stefan (1993).The Baltic States and the End of the Soviet Empire.Routledge.ISBN978-0415075701.
• Hiden, Johan;Salmon, Patrick(1994) [1991].The Baltic Nations and Europe(Revised ed.). Harlow, England: Longman.ISBN058225650X.
• Hiden, John (2008). Vahur Made; David J. Smith (eds.).The Baltic question during the Cold War.Routledge.ISBN978-0415371001.Archivedfrom the original on 10 February 2023.Retrieved9 September2020.
• Mälksoo, Lauri(2003).Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: The Case of the Incorporation of the Baltic States by the USSR.M. Nijhoff Publishers.ISBN9041121773.Archivedfrom the original on 17 January 2023.Retrieved25 October2015.
• Marek, Krystyna(1968) [1954].Identity and continuity of states in public international law(2 ed.). Geneva, Switzerland: Libr. Droz.
• McHugh, James; James S. Pacy (2001).Diplomats without a country: Baltic diplomacy, international law, and the Cold War.Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN0313318786.Archivedfrom the original on 10 February 2023.Retrieved9 September2020.
• Misiunas, Romuald J.; Taagepera, Rein (1993).The Baltic States, years of dependence, 1940–1990.University of California Press.ISBN0520082281.
• O'Connor, Kevin (2003).The History of the Baltic States.Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 113–145.ISBN978-0313323553.Archivedfrom the original on 10 February 2023.Retrieved9 September2020.
• Petrov, Pavel (2008).Punalipuline Balti Laevastik ja Eesti 1939–1941(in Estonian). Tänapäev.ISBN978-9985626313.Archivedfrom the original on 3 March 2016.Retrieved7 January2009.
• Plakans, Andrejs (2007).Experiencing Totalitarianism: The Invasion and Occupation of Latvia by the USSR and Nazi Germany 1939–1991.AuthorHouse. p. 596.ISBN978-1434315731.Archivedfrom the original on 10 February 2023.Retrieved9 September2020.
• Rislakki, Jukka (2008).The Case for Latvia. Disinformation Campaigns Against a Small Nation.Rodopi.ISBN978-9042024243.Archivedfrom the original on 10 February 2023.Retrieved9 September2020.
• Talmon, Stefan (1998).Recognition of governments in international law.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0198265733.Archivedfrom the original on 10 February 2023.Retrieved9 September2020.
• Tsygankov, Andrei P.(May 2009).Russophobia(1st ed.).Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0230614185.
• Wyman, David; Charles H. Rosenzveig (1996).The World Reacts to the Holocaust.JHU Press. pp. 365–381.ISBN978-0801849695.Archivedfrom the original on 10 February 2023.Retrieved9 September2020.
• Ziemele, Ineta(2005).State Continuity and Nationality: The Baltic States and Russia.Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.ISBN9004142959.

Further reading

• Yaacov Falkov, "Between the Nazi Hammer and the Soviet Anvil: The Untold Story of the Red Guerrillas in the Baltic Region, 1941–1945", in Chris Murray (ed.), Unknown Conflicts of the Second World War: Forgotten Fronts (London: Routledge, 2019), pp. 96–119,ISBN978-1138612945
• Aliide Naylor,The Shadow in the East
• Regarding the Procedure for carrying out the Deportation of Anti-Soviet Elements from Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia.– Full text, English
• The Global Museum on Communismabout the occupation of Estonia by the Soviet Union.
• The Occupation museum of Latvia
• GULAG 113– Canadian film about Estonians mobilized into the Red Army 1941 and forced into labour in the GULAG
• Soviet Aggression Against the Baltic Statesby (Latvian Supreme Court justice) Augusts Rumpeters — Short and thoroughly annotated dissertation on Soviet-Baltic treaties and relations. 1974.Full text
• Situation in Soviet occupied Estonia in 1955–1956. Manivald Räästas, Eduard Õun. 1956.

Academic and media articles

• Mälksoo, Lauri (2000).Professor Uluots, the Estonian Government in Exile and the Continuity of the Republic of Estonia in International Law.Nordic Journal of International Law69.3, 289–316.
• Non-Recognition in the Courts: The Ships of the Baltic Republicsby Herbert W. Briggs. InThe American Journal of International LawVol. 37, No. 4 (Oct., 1943), pp. 585–596.
• Alfred Erich SennWhat Happened in Lithuania in 1940?(PDF)
• The Soviet Occupation of the Baltic States,byIrina Saburova.InRussian Review,1955
• The Steel Curtain,Time Magazine,14 April 1947
• The Iron Heel,Time Magazine,14 December 1953

External links

• Aradio dramaabout the occupation is presented in "John Alma Johnny and MyraArchived11 November 2022 at theWayback Machine",a presentation fromDestination Freedom