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This article is about Homer's epic poem. For other uses, seeOdyssey (disambiguation).
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Odyssey
byHomer
15th-century manuscript of Book I written by scribeJohn Rhosos(British Museum)
Original titleὈδύσσεια
TranslatorGeorge Chapmanand others; seeEnglish translations of Homer
Writtenc. 8th century BC
LanguageHomeric Greek
Genre(s)Epic poetry
Published in English1614
Lines12,109
Preceded byTheIliad
MetreDactylic hexameter
Full text
The OdysseyatWikisource

TheOdyssey(/ˈɒdɪsi/;[1]Ancient Greek:Ὀδύσσεια,romanized:Odýsseia)[2][3]is one of two majorancient Greekepic poemsattributed toHomer.It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with theIliad,the poem is divided into 24books.It follows theGreek heroOdysseus,king ofIthaca,and his journey home after theTrojan War.After the war, which lasted ten years, his journey from Troy to Ithaca, via Africa and southern Europe, lasted for ten additional years during which time he encountered many perils and all of his crewmates were killed. In his absence, Odysseus was assumed dead, and his wifePenelopeand sonTelemachushad to contend with agroup of unruly suitorswho were competing for Penelope's hand in marriage.

TheOdysseywas originally composed inHomeric Greekin around the 8th or 7th century BC and, by the mid-6th century BC, had become part of the Greek literary canon. Inantiquity,Homer's authorship of the poem was not questioned, but contemporary scholarshippredominantly assumesthat theIliadand theOdysseywere composed independently and that the stories formed as part of a longoral tradition.Given widespread illiteracy, the poem was performed by anaoidosorrhapsodeand was more likely to be heard than read.

Crucial themes in the poem include the ideas ofnostos(νόστος; "return" ), wandering,xenia(ξενία; "guest-friendship" ), testing, and omens. Scholars still reflect on the narrative significance of certain groups in the poem, such as women and slaves, who have a more prominent role in the epic than in many other works of ancient literature. This focus is especially remarkable when contrasted with theIliad,which centres the exploits of soldiers and kings during the Trojan War.

TheOdysseyis regarded as one of the most significant works of theWestern canon.The firstEnglish translationof theOdysseywas in the 16th century. Adaptations and re-imaginings continue to be produced acrossa wide variety of media.In 2018, whenBBC Culturepolled experts around the world to find literature's most enduring narrative, theOdysseytopped the list.[4]

Synopsis

Exposition (books 1–4)

AmosaicdepictingOdysseus,from the villa ofLa Olmeda,Pedrosa de la Vega,Spain, late 4th–5th centuries AD

TheOdysseybegins after the end of the ten-yearTrojan War(the subject of theIliad), from whichOdysseus(also known by the Latin variant Ulysses), king ofIthaca,has still not returned because he angeredPoseidon,the god of the sea. Odysseus' son,Telemachus,is about 20 years old and is sharing his absent father's house on the island of Ithaca with his motherPenelopeand thesuitors of Penelope,a crowd of 108 boisterous young men who each aim to persuade Penelope for her hand in marriage, all the while reveling in the king's palace and eating up his wealth.

Odysseus' protectress, the goddessAthena,asksZeus,king of thegods,to finally allow Odysseus to return home when Poseidon is absent fromMount Olympus.Disguised as a chieftain namedMentes,Athena visits Telemachus to urge him to search for news of his father. He offers her hospitality, and they observe the suitors dining rowdily whilePhemius,thebard,performs a narrative poem for them.

That night, Athena, disguised as Telemachus, finds a ship and crew for the true prince. The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca to discuss what should be done with the insolent suitors, who then scoff at Telemachus. Accompanied by Athena (now disguised asMentor), the son of Odysseus departs for the Greek mainland to the household ofNestor,most venerable of the Greek warriors atTroy,who resided inPylosafter the war.

From there, Telemachus rides toSparta,accompanied byNestor's son.There he findsMenelausandHelen,who are now reconciled. Both Helen and Menelaus also say that they returned to Sparta after a long voyage by way of Egypt. There, on the island ofPharos,Menelaus encounters the old sea-godProteus,who tells him that Odysseus was a captive of the nymphCalypso.Telemachus learns the fate of Menelaus' brother,Agamemnon,king ofMycenaeand leader of the Greeks at Troy: he was murdered on his return home by his wifeClytemnestraand her loverAegisthus.The story briefly shifts to the suitors, who have only just realized that Telemachus is gone. Angry, they formulate a plan to ambush his ship and kill him as he sails back home. Penelope overhears their plot and worries for her son's safety.

Escape to the Phaeacians (books 5–8)

Charles Gleyre,OdysseusandNausicaä

In the course of Odysseus' seven years as a captive of Calypso on the islandOgygia,she has fallen deeply in love with him, even though he spurns her offers of immortality as her husband and still mourns for home. She is ordered to release him by the messenger godHermes,who has been sent by Zeus in response to Athena's plea. Odysseus builds a raft and is given clothing, food, and drink by Calypso. When Poseidon learns that Odysseus has escaped, he wrecks the raft, but helped by a veil given by the sea nymphIno,Odysseus swims ashore onScherie,the island of the Phaeacians. Naked and exhausted, he hides in a pile of leaves and falls asleep.

The next morning, awakened by girls' laughter, he sees the youngNausicaä,who has gone to the seashore with her maids after Athena told her in a dream to do so. He appeals for help. She encourages him to seek the hospitality of her parents,AreteandAlcinous.Alcinous promises to provide him a ship to return him home without knowing the identity of Odysseus. He remains for several days. Odysseus asks the blind singerDemodocusto tell the story of theTrojan Horse,a stratagem in which Odysseus had played a leading role. Unable to hide his emotion as he relives this episode, Odysseus at last reveals his identity. He then tells the story of his return from Troy.

Odysseus' account of his adventures (books 9–12)

Odysseus Overcome byDemodocus' Song,byFrancesco Hayez,1813–15

Odysseus recounts his story to the Phaeacians. After a failed raid against theCicones,Odysseus and his twelve ships were driven off course by storms. Odysseus visited thelotus-eaterswho gave his men their fruit which caused them to forget their homecoming. Odysseus had to drag them back to the ship by force.

Afterward, Odysseus and his men landed on a lush, uninhabited island near the land of theCyclopes.The men entered the cave ofPolyphemus,where they found all the cheeses and meat they desired. Upon returning to his cave, Polyphemus sealed the entrance with a massive boulder and proceeded to eat Odysseus' men. Odysseus devised an escape plan in which he, identifying himself as "Nobody," plied Polyphemus with wine and blinded him with a wooden stake. When Polyphemus cried out, his neighbors left after Polyphemus claimed that "Nobody" had attacked him. Odysseus and his men finally escaped the cave by hiding on the underbellies of the sheep as they were let out of the cave.

As they escaped, however, Odysseus taunted Polyphemus and revealed himself. The Cyclops prayed to his father Poseidon, asking him to curse Odysseus to wander for ten years. After the escape,Aeolusgave Odysseus a leather bag containing all the winds except the west wind, a gift that should have ensured a safe return home. Just as Ithaca came into sight, the sailors opened the bag while Odysseus slept, thinking it contained gold. The winds flew out, and the storm drove the ships back the way they had come. Aeolus, recognizing that Odysseus had drawn the ire of the gods, refused to further assist him.

After the cannibalisticLaestrygoniansdestroyed all of his ships except his own, Odysseus sailed on and reached the island ofAeaea,home of witch-goddessCirce.She turned half of his men into swine with drugged cheese and wine. Hermes warned Odysseus about Circe and gave Odysseus an herb calledmoly,making him resistant to Circe's magic. Odysseus forced Circe to change his men back to their human forms and was seduced by her. They remained with her for one year. Finally, guided by Circe's instructions, Odysseus and his crew crossed the ocean and reached a harbor at the western edge of the world, where Odysseussacrificed to the dead.Odysseus summoned the spirit of the prophetTiresiasand was told that he may return home if he is able to stay himself and his crew from eating the sacredlivestock of Helioson the island of Thrinacia and that failure to do so would result in the loss of his ship and his entire crew. He then meets his dead motherAnticleiaand first learns of the suitors and what happened in Ithaca in his absence. Odysseus also converses with his dead comrades from Troy.

Odysseus and the Sirens, eponymous vase of theSiren Painter,c. 480–470 BC(British Museum)

Returning to Aeaea, they buried Elpenor and were advised by Circe on the remaining stages of the journey. They skirted the land of theSirens.All of the sailors had their ears plugged up with beeswax, except for Odysseus, who was tied to the mast as he wanted to hear the song. He told his sailors not to untie him as it would only make him drown himself. They then passed between the six-headed monsterScyllaand the whirlpoolCharybdis.Scylla claimed six of his men.

Next, they landed on the island of Thrinacia, with the crew overriding Odysseus's wishes to remain away from the island. Zeus caused a storm that prevented them from leaving, causing them to deplete the food given to them by Circe. While Odysseus was away praying, his men ignored the warnings of Tiresias and Circe and hunted the sacred cattle.Heliosinsisted that Zeus punish the men for this sacrilege. They suffered a shipwreck, and all but Odysseus drowned as he clung to a fig tree. Washed ashore onOgygia,he remained there as Calypso's lover.

Return to Ithaca (books 13–20)

Odysseus discovers Penelope has devised tricks to delay the suitors whilst he has been away:Penelope and the SuitorsbyJohn William Waterhouse

Having listened to his story, the Phaeacians agree to provide Odysseus with more treasure than he would have received from the spoils of Troy. They deliver him at night, while he is fast asleep, to a hidden harbour on Ithaca. Odysseus awakens and believes that he has been dropped on a distant land before Athena appears to him and reveals that he is indeed on Ithaca. She hides his treasure in a nearby cave and disguises him as an elderly beggar so he can see how things stand in his household. He finds his way to the hut of one of his own slaves, swineherdEumaeus,who treats him hospitably and speaks favorably of Odysseus. After dinner, the disguised Odysseus tells the farm laborers a fictitious tale of himself.

Telemachus sails home from Sparta, evading an ambush set by the suitors. He disembarks on the coast of Ithaca and meets Odysseus. Odysseus identifies himself to Telemachus (but not to Eumaeus), and they decide that the suitors must be killed. Telemachus goes home first. Accompanied by Eumaeus, Odysseus returns to his own house, still pretending to be a beggar. He is ridiculed by the suitors in his own home, especiallyAntinous.Odysseus meets Penelope and tests her intentions by saying he once met Odysseus in Crete. Closely questioned, he adds that he had recently been inThesprotiaand had learned something there of Odysseus's recent wanderings.

Odysseus's identity is discovered by the housekeeperEurycleiawhen she recognizes an old scar as she is washing his feet. Eurycleia tries to tell Penelope about the beggar's true identity, but Athena makes sure that Penelope cannot hear her. Odysseus swears Eurycleia to secrecy.

Slaying of the Suitors (books 21–24)

Ulysses and Telemachus kill Penelope's SuitorsbyThomas Degeorge(1812)

The next day, at Athena's prompting, Penelope maneuvers the suitors into competing for her hand with an archery competition using Odysseus' bow. The man who can string the bow and shoot an arrow through a dozen axe heads would win. Odysseus takes part in the competition, and he alone is strong enough to string the bow and shoot the arrow through the dozen axe heads, making him the winner. He then throws off his rags and kills Antinous with his next arrow. Odysseus kills the other suitors, first using the rest of the arrows and then, along with Telemachus, Eumaeus and the cowherd Philoetius, with swords and spears. Once the battle is won, Telemachus also hangs twelve of their household maids whom Eurycleia identifies as guilty of betraying Penelope or having sex with the suitors. Odysseus identifies himself to Penelope. She is hesitant but recognizes him when he mentions that he made their bed from an olive tree still rooted to the ground. She embraces him and they sleep.

The next day, Odysseus goes to his fatherLaertes's farm and reveals himself. Following them to the farm is a group of Ithacans, led byEupeithes,father of Antinous, who are out for revenge for the murder of the suitors. A battle breaks out, but it is quickly stopped by Athena and Zeus.

Structure

TheOdysseyis 12,109 lines composed indactylic hexameter,also called Homeric hexameter.[5][6]It opensin medias res,in the middle of the overall story, with prior events described throughflashbacksand storytelling.[7]The 24 books correspond to the letters of theGreek Alpha bet;the division was likely made after the poem's composition, by someone other than Homer, but is generally accepted.[8]

In theClassical period,some of the books (individually and in groups) were commonly given their own titles:

  • Book 1–4:Telemachy—the story focuses on the perspective of Telemachus.[9]
  • Books 9–12:Apologoi—Odysseus recalls his adventures for his Phaeacian hosts.[10]
  • Book 22:Mnesterophonia('slaughter of the suitors';Mnesteres,'suitors' +phónos,'slaughter').[11]

Book 22 concludes the GreekEpic Cycle,though fragments remain of the "alternative ending" of sorts known as theTelegony.TheTelegonyaside, the last 548 lines of theOdyssey,corresponding to Book 24, are believed by many scholars to have been added by a slightly later poet.[12]

Geography

Main articles:Homer's IthacaandGeography of the Odyssey

The events in the main sequence of theOdyssey(excluding Odysseus'embedded narrativeof his wanderings) have been said to take place in thePeloponneseand in what are now called theIonian Islands.[13]There are difficulties in the apparently simple identification of Ithaca, the homeland of Odysseus, which may or may not be the same island that is now calledIthakē(modern Greek:Ιθάκη).[13]The wanderings of Odysseus as told to the Phaeacians, and the location of the Phaeacians' own island of Scheria, pose more fundamental problems, if geography is to be applied: scholars, both ancient and modern, are divided as to whether any of the places visited by Odysseus (afterIsmarosand before his return to Ithaca) are real.[14]Both antiquated and contemporary scholars have attempted to map Odysseus' journey but now largely agree that the landscapes, especially of the Apologia (Books 9 to 11), include too many mythological aspects as features to be unequivocally mappable.[15]ClassicistPeter T. Struckcreated an interactive map which plots Odysseus' travels,[16]including his near homecoming which was thwarted by the bag of wind.[15]

Influences

Terracotta plaque of the Mesopotamian ogreHumbaba,believed to be a possible inspiration for the figure of Polyphemus

Scholars have seen strong influences from Near Eastern mythology and literature in theOdyssey.[17]Martin Westnotes substantial parallels between theEpic of Gilgameshand theOdyssey.[18]Both Odysseus andGilgameshare known for traveling to the ends of the earth and on their journeys go to the land of the dead.[19]On his voyage to the underworld, Odysseus follows instructions given to him by Circe, who is located at the edges of the world and is associated through imagery with the sun.[20]Like Odysseus, Gilgamesh gets directions on how to reach the land of the dead from a divine helper: the goddessSiduri,who, like Circe, dwells by the sea at the ends of the earth, whose home is also associated with the sun. Gilgamesh reaches Siduri's house by passing through a tunnel underneath Mt.Mashu,the high mountain from which the sun comes into the sky.[21]West argues that the similarity of Odysseus' and Gilgamesh's journeys to the edges of the earth are the result of the influence of the Gilgamesh epic upon theOdyssey.[22]

In 1914,paleontologistOthenio Abelsurmised the origins of the Cyclops to be the result of ancient Greeks finding an elephant skull.[23]The enormous nasal passage in the middle of the forehead could have looked like the eye socket of a giant, to those who had never seen a living elephant.[23]Classical scholars, on the other hand, have long known that the story of the Cyclops was originally afolk tale,which existed independently of theOdysseyand which became part of it at a later date. Similar stories are found in cultures across Europe and the Middle East.[24]According to this explanation, the Cyclops was originally simply a giant or ogre, much likeHumbabain theEpic of Gilgamesh.[24]Graham Anderson suggests that the addition about it having only one eye was invented to explain how the creature was so easily blinded.[25]

Themes and patterns

Homecoming

Odyssey(1794)

Homecoming (Ancient Greek:νόστος, nostos) is a central theme of theOdyssey.[26]Anna Bonafazi of theUniversity of Colognewrites that, in Homer,nostosis "return home from Troy, by sea".[27]Agatha Thornton examinesnostosin the context of characters other than Odysseus, in order to provide an alternative for what might happen after the end of theOdyssey.[28]For instance, one example is that of Agamemnon's homecoming versus Odysseus'. Upon Agamemnon's return, his wife Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus, kill Agamemnon. Agamemnon's son,Orestes,out of vengeance for his father's death, kills Aegisthus. This parallel compares the death of the suitors to the death of Aegisthus and sets Orestes up as an example for Telemachus.[28]Also, because Odysseus knows about Clytemnestra's betrayal, Odysseus returns home in disguise in order to test the loyalty of his own wife, Penelope.[28]Later, Agamemnon praises Penelope for not killing Odysseus. It is because of Penelope that Odysseus has fame and a successful homecoming. This successful homecoming is unlikeAchilles,who has fame but is dead, and Agamemnon, who had an unsuccessful homecoming resulting in his death.[28]

Wandering

Only two of Odysseus's adventures are described by the narrator. The rest of Odysseus' adventures are recounted by Odysseus himself. The two scenes described by the narrator are Odysseus on Calypso's island and Odysseus' encounter with the Phaeacians. These scenes are told by the poet to represent an important transition in Odysseus' journey: being concealed to returning home.[29]

Calypso's name comes from the Greek wordkalúptō(καλύπτω), meaning 'to cover' or 'conceal', which is apt, as this is exactly what she does with Odysseus.[30]Calypso keeps Odysseus concealed from the world and unable to return home. After leaving Calypso's island, the poet describes Odysseus' encounters with the Phaeacians—those who "convoy without hurt to all men"[31]—which represents his transition from not returning home to returning home.[29]

Also, during Odysseus' journey, he encounters many beings that are close to the gods. These encounters are useful in understanding that Odysseus is in a world beyond man and that influences the fact he cannot return home.[29]These beings that are close to the gods include the Phaeacians who lived near the Cyclopes,[32]whose king, Alcinous, is the great-grandson of the king of the giants,Eurymedon,and the grandson of Poseidon.[29]Some of the other characters that Odysseus encounters are the cyclopsPolyphemus,the son of Poseidon; Circe, a sorceress who turns men into animals; and the cannibalistic giants, the Laestrygonians.[29]

Guest-friendship

Statue representing theOdyssey,Museum of theAncient Agora of Athens.

Throughout the course of the epic, Odysseus encounters several examples ofxenia( "guest-friendship" ), which provide models of how hosts should and should not act.[33][34]The Phaeacians demonstrate exemplary guest-friendship by feeding Odysseus, giving him a place to sleep, and granting him many gifts and a safe voyage home, which are all things a good host should do. Polyphemus demonstrates poor guest-friendship. His only "gift" to Odysseus is that he will eat him last.[34]Calypso also exemplifies poor guest-friendship because she does not allow Odysseus to leave her island.[34]Another important factor to guest-friendship is that kingship implies generosity. It is assumed that a king has the means to be a generous host and is more generous with his own property.[34]This is best seen when Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, begs Antinous, one of the suitors, for food and Antinous denies his request. Odysseus essentially says that while Antinous may look like a king, he is far from a king since he is not generous.[35]

According to J. B. Hainsworth, guest-friendship follows a very specific pattern:[36]

  1. The arrival and the reception of the guest.
  2. Bathing or providing fresh clothes to the guest.
  3. Providing food and drink to the guest.
  4. Questions may be asked of the guest and entertainment should be provided by the host.
  5. The guest should be given a place to sleep, and both the guest and host retire for the night.
  6. The guest and host exchange gifts, the guest is granted a safe journey home, and the guest departs.

Another important factor of guest-friendship is not keeping the guest longer than they wish and also promising their safety while they are a guest within the host's home.[33][37]

Testing

Penelope questions Odysseus to prove his identity.

Another theme throughout theOdysseyis testing.[38]This occurs in two distinct ways. Odysseus tests the loyalty of others and others test Odysseus' identity. An example of Odysseus testing the loyalties of others is when he returns home.[38]Instead of immediately revealing his identity, he arrives disguised as a beggar and then proceeds to determine who in his house has remained loyal to him and who has helped the suitors. After Odysseus reveals his true identity, the characters test Odysseus' identity to see if he really is who he says he is.[38]For instance, Penelope tests Odysseus' identity by saying that she will move the bed into the other room for him. This is a difficult task since it is made out of a living tree that would require being cut down, a fact that only the real Odysseus would know, thus proving his identity.[38]

Testing also has a very specifictype scenethat accompanies it. Throughout the epic, the testing of others follows a typical pattern. This pattern is:[38][37]

  1. Odysseus is hesitant to question the loyalties of others.
  2. Odysseus tests the loyalties of others by questioning them.
  3. The characters reply to Odysseus' questions.
  4. Odysseus proceeds to reveal his identity.
  5. The characters test Odysseus' identity.
  6. There is a rise of emotions associated with Odysseus' recognition, usually lament or joy.
  7. Finally, the reconciled characters work together.

Omens

Odysseus and EurycleiabyJohann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein

Omens occur frequently throughout theOdyssey.Within the epic poem, they frequently involve birds.[39]According to Thornton, most crucial is who receives each omen and in what way it manifests. For instance, bird omens are shown to Telemachus, Penelope, Odysseus, and the suitors.[39]Telemachus and Penelope receive their omens as well in the form of words, sneezes, and dreams.[39]However, Odysseus is the only character who receives thunder or lightning as an omen.[40][41]She highlights this as crucial because lightning, as a symbol of Zeus, represents the kingship of Odysseus.[39]Odysseus is associated with Zeus throughout both theIliadand theOdyssey.[42]

Omens are another example of a type scene in theOdyssey.Two important parts of an omen type scene are therecognitionof the omen, followed by itsinterpretation.[39]In theOdyssey,all of the bird omens—with the exception of the first—show large birds attacking smaller birds.[39][37]Accompanying each omen is a wish which can be either explicitly stated or only implied.[39]For example, Telemachus wishes for vengeance[43]and for Odysseus to be home,[44]Penelope wishes for Odysseus' return,[45]and the suitors wish for the death of Telemachus.[46]

Textual history

Composition

The date of the poem is a matter of some disagreement among classicists. In the middle of the 8th century BC, the inhabitants of Greece began to adopt a modified version of thePhoenician Alpha betto write down their own language.[47]The Homeric poems may have been one of the earliest products of that literacy, and if so, would have been composed some time in the late 8th century BC.[48]Inscribed on aclay cupfound inIschia,Italy, are the words "Nestor's cup, good to drink from."[49]Some scholars, such asCalvert Watkins,have tied this cup to a description of KingNestor's golden cupin theIliad.[50]If the cup is an allusion to theIliad,that poem's composition can be dated to at least 700–750 BC.[47]

Dating is similarly complicated by the fact that the Homeric poems, or sections of them, were performed regularly by rhapsodes for several hundred years.[47]TheOdysseyas it exists today is likely not significantly different.[48]Aside from minor differences, the Homeric poems gained a canonical place in the institutions of ancient Athens by the 6th century.[51]In 566 BC,Peisistratosinstituted a civic and religious festival called thePanathenaia,which featured performances of Homeric poems.[52]These are significant because a "correct" version of the poems had to be performed, indicating that a particular version of the text had become canonised.[53]

Textual tradition

Portrait by the Italian painterDomenico Ghirlandaioof the Greek Renaissance scholarDemetrios Chalkokondyles,who produced the first printed edition of theOdysseyin 1488

TheIliadand theOdysseywere widely copied and used asschool textsin lands where the Greek language was spoken throughout antiquity.[54][55]Scholars may have begun to write commentaries on the poems as early as the time ofAristotlein the 4th century BC.[54]In the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, scholars affiliated with theLibrary of Alexandria—particularlyZenodotusandAristarchus of Samothrace—edited the Homeric poems, wrote commentaries on them, and helped establish the canonical texts.[56]

TheIliadand theOdysseyremained widely studied and used as school texts in theByzantine Empireduring theMiddle Ages.[54][55]The Byzantine Greek scholar and archbishopEustathios of Thessalonike(c. 1115– c. 1195/6 AD) wrote exhaustive commentaries on both of the Homeric epics that became seen by later generations as authoritative;[54][55]his commentary on theOdysseyalone spans nearly 2,000 oversized pages in a twentieth-century edition.[54]The first printed edition of theOdyssey,known as theeditio princeps,wasproduced in 1488by the Greek scholarDemetrios Chalkokondyles,who had been born in Athens and had studied in Constantinople.[54][55]His edition was printed inMilanby a Greek printer named Antonios Damilas.[55]

Since the late 19th century, many papyri containing fragments of theOdysseyhave been found in Egypt, some with content different from later medieval versions.[57] In 2018, theGreek Cultural Ministryrevealed the discovery of a clay tablet near theTemple of Zeusat Olympia, containing 13 verses from theOdyssey's14th book. While it was initially reported to date from the 3rd century AD, the date is unconfirmed.[58][59]

English translations

See also:English translations of Homer

George Chapman's English translations of theOdysseyand theIliad,published together in 1616 but serialised earlier, were the first to enjoy widespread success. The texts had been published in translation before, with some translated not from the original Greek.[60][61]Chapman worked on these for a large part of his life.[62]In 1581, Arthur Hall translated the first 10 books of theIliadfrom a French version.[63]Chapman's translations persisted in popularity, and are often remembered today throughJohn Keats' sonnet "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer"(1816).[64]Years after completing his translation of theIliad,Alexander Popebegan to translate theOdysseybecause of his financial situation. His second translation was not received as favourably as the first.[65]

Emily Wilson,a professor ofclassical studiesat theUniversity of Pennsylvania,notes that as late as the first decade of the 21st century, almost all of the most prominent translators of Greek and Roman literature had been men.[66]She calls her experience of translating Homer one of "intimate alienation."[66]Wilson writes that this has affected the popular conception of characters and events of theOdyssey,[67]inflecting the story with connotations not present in the original text: "For instance, in the scene where Telemachus oversees the hanging of the slaves who have been sleeping with the suitors, most translations introduce derogatory language (" sluts "or" whores ") [...] The original Greek does not label these slaves with derogatory language."[67]In the original Greek, the word used ishai,the feminine article, equivalent to "those female people".[68]

Legacy

See also:Category:Works based on theOdyssey
See also:Parallels between Virgil'sAeneidand Homer'sIliadandOdyssey
Front cover ofJames Joyce'sUlysses

The influence of the Homeric texts can be difficult to summarise because of how greatly they have impacted the popular imagination and cultural values.[69]TheOdysseyand theIliadformed the basis of education for members of ancient Mediterranean society. That curriculum was adopted by Western humanists,[70]meaning the text was so much a part of the cultural fabric that it became irrelevant whether an individual had read it.[71]As such, the influence of theOdysseyhas reverberated through over a millennium of writing. The poem topped a poll of experts byBBCCultureto find literature's most enduring narrative.[4]It is widely regarded by western literary critics as a timeless classic[72]and remains one of the oldest works of extant literature commonly read by Western audiences.[73]

Literature

In Canto XXVI of theInferno,Dante Alighierimeets Odysseus in theeighth circle of hell,where Odysseus appends a new ending to theOdysseyin which he never returns to Ithaca and instead continues his restless adventuring.[23]Edith Hallsuggests that Dante's depiction of Odysseus became understood as a manifestation ofRenaissancecolonialismandothering,with the cyclops standing in for "accounts of monstrous races on the edge of the world", and his defeat as symbolising "the Roman domination of the western Mediterranean".[33]Some of Ulysses' adventures reappear in the Arabic tales ofSinbad the Sailor.[citation needed]

The Irish poetJames Joyce'smodernistnovelUlysses(1922) was significantly influenced by theOdyssey.Joyce had encountered the figure of Odysseus inCharles Lamb'sAdventures of Ulysses,an adaptation of the epic poem for children, which seems to have established the Latin name in Joyce's mind.[74][75]Ulysses,a re-telling of theOdysseyset inDublin,is divided into 18 sections ( "episodes" ) which can be mapped roughly onto the 24 books of theOdyssey.[76]Joyce claimed familiarity with the original Homeric Greek, but this has been disputed by some scholars, who cite his poor grasp of the language as evidence to the contrary.[77]The book, and especially itsstream of consciousnessprose, is widely considered foundational to the modernist genre.[78]

Nikos Kazantzakis'sThe Odyssey: A Modern Sequelbegins where theOdysseyends, with Odysseus leaving Ithaca again.

Modern writers have revisited theOdysseyto highlight the poem's female characters. Canadian writerMargaret Atwoodadapted parts of theOdysseyfor her novellaThe Penelopiad(2005). The novella focuses on Penelope and the twelve female slaves hanged by Odysseus at the poem's ending,[79]an image which haunted Atwood.[80]Atwood's novella comments on the original text, wherein Odysseus' successful return to Ithaca symbolises the restoration of apatriarchalsystem.[80]Similarly,Madeline Miller'sCirce(2018) revisits the relationship between Odysseus and Circe on Aeaea.[81]As a reader, Miller was frustrated by Circe's lack of motivation in the original poem and sought to explain her capriciousness.[82]The novel recontextualises the sorceress' transformations of sailors into pigs from an act of malice into one of self-defence, given that she has no superhuman strength with which to repel attackers.[83]

Film and television

Opera and music

See also:Category:Operas based on the Odyssey

Sciences

  • PsychiatristJonathan Shaywrote two books,Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character(1994)[97]andOdysseus in America: Combat Trauma and the Trials of Homecoming(2002),[98]which relate theIliadand theOdysseytoposttraumatic stress disorderandmoral injuryas seen in the rehabilitation histories of combat veteran patients.

References

Citations

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  2. ^Ὀδύσσεια.Liddell, Henry George;Scott, Robert;A Greek–English Lexiconat thePerseus Project.
  3. ^Harper, Douglas."odyssey".Online Etymology Dictionary.
  4. ^abHaynes, Natalie(22 May 2018)."The Greatest Tale Ever Told?".BBC Culture.Archivedfrom the original on 19 June 2020.
  5. ^Myrsiades 2019,p. 3, "[...] is a long oral narrative poem of 12,109 lines".
  6. ^Haslam 1976,p. 203.
  7. ^Foley 2007,p. 19.
  8. ^Lattimore 1951,p. 14.
  9. ^Willcock 2007,p. 32.
  10. ^Most, Glenn W. (1989). "The Structure and Function of Odysseus' Apologoi".Transactions of the American Philological Association.119:15–30.doi:10.2307/284257.JSTOR284257.
  11. ^Cairns 2014,p. 231.
  12. ^Carne-Ross 1998,p. ixi.
  13. ^abStrabo,Geographica,1.2.15, cited inFinley 1976,p. 33
  14. ^Fox 2008,"Finding Neverland.".
  15. ^abZazzera, Elizabeth Della (27 February 2019)."The Geography of the Odyssey".Lapham's Quarterly.Archivedfrom the original on 8 October 2020.Retrieved29 July2022.
  16. ^Struck, Peter T."Map of Odysseus' Journey".classics.upenn.edu.Archivedfrom the original on 18 March 2020.Retrieved29 July2022.
  17. ^West 1997,p. 403.
  18. ^West 1997,pp. 402–417.
  19. ^West 1997,p. 405.
  20. ^West 1997,p. 406.
  21. ^West 1997,p. 410.
  22. ^West 1997,p. 417.
  23. ^abcMayor 2000,p.[page needed].
  24. ^abAnderson 2000,pp. 127–131.
  25. ^Anderson 2000,pp. 124–125.
  26. ^Bonifazi 2009,pp. 481, 492.
  27. ^Bonifazi 2009,p. 481.
  28. ^abcdThornton 1970,pp. 1–15.
  29. ^abcdeThornton 1970,pp. 16–37.
  30. ^"Greek Myths & Greek Mythology".greekmyths-greekmythology.2010. Archived fromthe originalon 2 May 2016.Retrieved5 May2020.
  31. ^Homer 1975,8.566.
  32. ^Homer 1975,6.4–5.
  33. ^abcReece 1993,p.[page needed].
  34. ^abcdThornton 1970,pp. 38–46.
  35. ^Homer 1975,17.415–444.
  36. ^Hainsworth 1972,pp. 320–321.
  37. ^abcEdwards 1992,pp. 284–330.
  38. ^abcdeThornton 1970,pp. 47–51.
  39. ^abcdefgThornton 1970,pp. 52–57.
  40. ^Homer 1975,20.103–104.
  41. ^Homer 1975,21.414.
  42. ^Kundmueller 2013,p. 7.
  43. ^Homer 1975,2.143–145.
  44. ^Homer 1975,15.155–159.
  45. ^Homer 1975,19.136.
  46. ^Homer 1975,20.240–243.
  47. ^abcWilson 2018,p. 21.
  48. ^abWilson 2018,p. 23.
  49. ^Higgins, Charlotte(13 November 2019)."From Carnage to a Camp Beauty Contest: The Endless Allure of Troy".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 9 January 2020.
  50. ^Watkins 1976,p. 28.
  51. ^Davison 1955,pp. 7–8.
  52. ^Davison 1955,pp. 9–10.
  53. ^Wilson 2018,p. 21, "In 566 BCE, Pisistratus, the tyrant of the city (which was not yet a democracy), instituted a civic and religious festival, the Panathenaia, which included a poetic competition, featuring performances of the Homeric poems. The institution is particularly significant because we are told that the Homeric poems had to be performed" correctly, "which implies the canonization of a particular written text of The Iliad and The Odyssey at this date.".
  54. ^abcdefLamberton 2010,pp. 449–452.
  55. ^abcdeBrowning 1992,pp. 134–148.
  56. ^Haslam, Michael (2012). "Text and Transmission".The Homer Encyclopedia.doi:10.1002/9781444350302.wbhe1413.ISBN978-1-4051-7768-9.
  57. ^Daley, Jason (11 July 2018)."Oldest Greek Fragment of Homer Discovered on Clay Tablet".Smithsonian.Archivedfrom the original on 23 January 2019.Retrieved29 July2022.
  58. ^Tagaris, Karolina (10 July 2018). Heavens, Andrew (ed.)."'Oldest known extract' of Homer's Odyssey discovered in Greece ".Reuters.Archivedfrom the original on 24 March 2019.
  59. ^"Homer Odyssey: Oldest extract discovered on clay tablet".BBC News.10 July 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 1 September 2020.
  60. ^Fay 1952,p. 104.
  61. ^Myrsiades, Kostas; Pinsker, Sanford (1976)."A Bibliographical Guide to Teaching the Homeric Epics in College Courses".College Literature.3(3): 237–259.ISSN0093-3139.JSTOR25111144.Archivedfrom the original on 31 December 2022.Retrieved31 December2022.
  62. ^Brammall, Sheldon (1 July 2018)."George Chapman: Homer's Iliad, edited by Robert S. Miola; Homer's Odyssey, edited by Gordon Kendal".Translation and Literature.27(2): 223–231.doi:10.3366/tal.2018.0339.ISSN0968-1361.S2CID165293864.Archivedfrom the original on 31 December 2022.Retrieved31 December2022.
  63. ^Marlborough.), George Spencer Churchill (Duke of (1814).Bibliotheca Blandfordiensis. [A Catalogue.] 9 Fasc. (Catalogus Librorum Qui Bibliothecae Blandfordiensis Nuper Additi Sunt. 1814.).p. 11.Archivedfrom the original on 13 August 2023.Retrieved30 January2023.
  64. ^Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (25 October 2010).The Classical Tradition.Harvard University Press. p. 331.ISBN978-0-674-03572-0.
  65. ^Baines, Paul (2000).The Complete Critical Guide to Alexander Pope.London: Routledge. p. 25.ISBN0-203-16993-X.OCLC48139753.Archivedfrom the original on 24 May 2022.Retrieved31 December2022.
  66. ^abWilson, Emily (7 July 2017)."Found in Translation: How Women are Making the Classics Their Own".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Archivedfrom the original on 29 July 2020.
  67. ^abWilson 2018,p. 86.
  68. ^Wilson, Emily (8 December 2017)."A Translator's Reckoning With the Women of The Odyssey".The New Yorker.Archivedfrom the original on 6 August 2020.Retrieved29 July2022.
  69. ^Kenner 1971,p. 50.
  70. ^Hall 2008,p. 25.
  71. ^Ruskin 1868,p. 17, "All Greek gentlemen were educated under Homer. All Roman gentlemen, by Greek literature. All Italian, and French, and English gentlemen, by Roman literature, and by its principles.".
  72. ^Cartwright, Mark (15 March 2017)."Odyssey".World History Encyclopedia.Archivedfrom the original on 4 July 2017.Retrieved29 July2022.
  73. ^North, Anna (20 November 2017)."Historically, men translated the Odyssey. Here's what happened when a woman took the job".Vox.Archivedfrom the original on 27 June 2020.Retrieved29 July2022.
  74. ^Gorman 1939,p. 45.
  75. ^Jaurretche 2005,p. 29.
  76. ^Drabble, Margaret, ed. (1995). "Ulysses".The Oxford Companion to English Literature.Oxford:Oxford University Press.p. 1023.ISBN978-0-19-866221-1.
  77. ^Ames 2005,p. 17, "First of all, Joyce did own and read Homer in the original Greek, but his expertise was so minimal that he cannot justly be said to have known Homer in the original. Any typical young classical scholar in the second year of studying Greek would already possess more faculty with Homer than Joyce ever managed to achieve.".
  78. ^Williams, Linda R., ed. (1992).The Bloomsbury Guides to English Literature: The Twentieth Century.London: Bloomsbury. pp. 108–109.
  79. ^Beard, Mary (28 October 2005)."Review: Helen of Troy | Weight | The Penelopiad | Songs on Bronze".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Archivedfrom the original on 26 March 2016.
  80. ^ab"Margaret Atwood: A personal odyssey and how she rewrote Homer".The Independent.28 October 2005.Archivedfrom the original on 7 July 2020.
  81. ^"Circe by Madeline Miller review – myth, magic and single motherhood".the Guardian.21 April 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 14 June 2020.
  82. ^"'Circe' Gets A New Motivation ".NPR.org.Archivedfrom the original on 25 April 2018.
  83. ^Messud, Claire (28 May 2018)."December's Book Club Pick: Turning Circe Into a Good Witch (Published 2018)".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Archivedfrom the original on 6 September 2020.
  84. ^Luzzi, Joseph (2020).Italian Cinema from the Silent Screen to the Digital Image.Bloomsbury Publishing.ISBN9781441195616.
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  90. ^Roman 2005,p. 267.
  91. ^Siegel, Janice (2007)."The Coens' O Brother, Where Art Thou? and Homer's Odyssey".Mouseion: Journal of the Classical Association of Canada.7(3): 213–245.doi:10.1353/mou.0.0029.ISSN1913-5416.S2CID163006295.Archivedfrom the original on 6 August 2020.
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  93. ^Griffel, Margaret Ross(2018)."Sirenen".Operas in German: A Dictionary.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 448.ISBN978-1-4422-4797-0.Archivedfrom the original on 13 August 2023.Retrieved3 October2020.
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  95. ^EntréeUlysse,Philippe Le Moal,Dictionnaire de la danse(in French),éditions Larousse,1999ISBN2035113180,p. 507.
  96. ^Esiste uno stile Gallotta?Archived1 April 2007 at theWayback Machineby Marinella Guatterini in 1994 on Romaeuropa's website (in Italian).
  97. ^Shay, Jonathan.Achilles in Vietnam: Combat trauma and the undoing of character.Scribner, 1994.ISBN978-0-684-81321-9
  98. ^Shay, Jonathan.Odysseus in America: Combat Trauma and the Trials of Homecoming.New York: Scribner, 2002.ISBN978-0-7432-1157-4

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Austin, N. 1975.Archery at the Dark of the Moon: Poetic Problems in Homer's Odyssey.Berkeley:University of California Press.
  • Clayton, B. 2004.A Penelopean Poetics: Reweaving the Feminine in Homer's Odyssey.Lanham:Le xing ton Books.
  • — 2011. "Polyphemus and Odysseus in the Nursery: Mother's Milk in the Cyclopeia."Arethusa44(3):255–77.
  • Bakker, E. J. 2013.The Meaning of Meat and the Structure of the Odyssey.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
  • Barnouw, J. 2004.Odysseus, Hero of Practical Intelligence. Deliberation and Signs in Homer's Odyssey.Lanham, MD:University Press of America.
  • Dougherty, C. 2001.The Raft of Odysseus: The Ethnographic Imagination of Homer's Odyssey.New York:Oxford University Press.
  • Fenik, B. 1974.Studies in the Odyssey.Hermes: Einzelschriften30. Wiesbaden, West Germany: F. Steiner.
  • Griffin, J. 1987.Homer: The Odyssey. Landmarks in World Literature.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Louden, B. 2011.Homer's Odyssey and the Near East.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • — 1999.The Odyssey: Structure, Narration and Meaning.Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press.
  • Müller, W. G. 2015. "From Homer's Odyssey to Joyce's Ulysses: Theory and Practice of an Ethical Narratology."Arcadia50(1):9–36.
  • Perpinyà, Núria.2008.Las criptas de la crítica. Veinte lecturas de la Odisea[The Crypts of Criticism: Twenty Interpretations of the 'Odyssey']. Madrid: Gredos.Lay summaryArchived18 June 2020 at theWayback Machinevia El Cultural (in Spanish).
  • Reece, Steve. 2011. "Toward an Ethnopoetically Grounded Edition of Homer's OdysseyArchived1 January 2020 at theWayback Machine."Oral Tradition26:299–326.
  • Saïd, S. 2011 [1998]..Homer and the Odyssey.New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Thurman, Judith,"Mother Tongue: Emily Wilson makes Homer modern",The New Yorker,18 September 2023, pp. 46–53. A biography, and presentation of thetranslationtheories and practices, ofEmily Wilson."'As a translator, I was determined to make the whole human experience of the poems accessible,' Wilson said." (p. 47.)

External links

Library resourcesabout
TheOdyssey

The Odyssey in ancient Greek

  • The Odyssey(in Ancient Greek) onPerseus Project
  • Odyssey:the Greek text presented with the translation by Butler and vocabulary, notes, and analysis of difficult grammatical forms

English translations

Other resources

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