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This article is about petroleum and petroleum products. For edible oils, seeAgriculture in Turkey.

A large, low ship in front of a city skyline
Tankers,like this one in theBosporus,are one way to export oil fromCentral Asia.

Oilsupplies over a quarter ofTurkey's energy.[1][2]Because the country produces very little oil,[3]it is almost completely dependent on imports of oil and oil products such aspetrolanddiesel,[4]over half of which is consumed inthe country's road vehicles.[5]Turkey is the world's largest user ofliquefied petroleum gas(LPG) for road transport.[6]

Because Turkey produces only 7% of the oil it consumes, the country's totalimports are worth more than its exports,which is a problem forits economy.[7]After the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine,several European countries stopped buyingRussian oil, petrol and dieselbutTurkey's relations with Russiaare such that it supplies most such imports.[8][9][10]

Demand

[edit]
Primary energy supplyis about a quarter each from coal, oil, gas, and other sources.

During the 2010s, demand for oil considerably increased, mainly due to increased use ofdiesel,[11]and is forecast to slowly increase until 2040.[12]Over half of Turkey's imported oil and oil products are used forroad transport,[5]and Turkey is the world's largest user ofliquefied petroleum gas(LPG) for road transport.[6]It is hoped thelocally manufactured electric carsand other road vehicles from the country'sautomotive industrywill eventually reduce the import bill.[13]In 2021, Turkey's consumption of diesel—both domestic and export—was over six times that of petrol.[14]: 19 

Health and environmental impact

[edit]
See also:Air pollution in TurkeyandGreenhouse gas emissions by Turkey
Some ships burn heavy fuel oil near cities.

Fossil-fuelled road-vehicle exhaust emissions pollute large cities withnitrogen dioxideand other gasses.[15]Air pollution from diesel is worse than that from petrol.[16]

As of 2022theBlack Seais not an emission control area; air pollution is emitted from ships in Turkish Black Sea ports.[17]Maritime incidents in the Turkish Straitshave resulted in oil spills. Air pollution from ships burningheavy fuel oilnear cities is a problem in some places, such asMersin.[18]

Oil production in Russiacausesmethane leaksinto the atmosphere.[19]Because the internationalgreenhouse gas inventorystandard is production-based, this is accounted for inRussia's greenhouse gas emissionsrather than those of Turkey.[20]

Sources

[edit]
See also:Category:Oil fields in Turkey
Oil is piped fromAzerbaijanand Iraq and some is shipped from Russia to larger refineries (R) in the west. Azerbaijani oil is mostly re-exported by tanker fromCeyhan.

Turkey's estimatedreserves of oilis about 600 million barrels,[a][14]: 19 and about 3 million tons are produced each year, about seven percent of Turkey's annual consumption.[21][22]The country imports around 25 to 30 million tons a year,[14]: 20 mostly from Russia and Iraq.[23][24]

TPAO,the state-owned exploration and production company, drills between 100 and 200 exploratory wells each year.[14]: 19 Mostproven oil reservesand production are inBatmanandAdıyaman Provincesin the southeast, and there is a little inThrace.[25]: 3 Batı Ramanhasextra heavy crude oil;other fields produce much-lighter domestic crude, whoseAPI gravityaverages 28, and this medium-weight oil is suitable for the Turkish market.[26]In 2023, reserves of about one billion barrels with API gravity of 41 were discovered near Mt Gabar inŞirnak.[27]Shale oilmay be extractable fromDadaşbut well-waste fluids would need to be properly handled to minimize theenvironmental impact of hydraulic fracturing.[28]

Oil exploration licenses in Turkey are granted by theGeneral Directorate of Mining and Petroleum Affairs[21]but the process of granting them takes a long time and requires political influence.[29]The Petroleum Market Law provides incentives for investors to explore and produce.[30]Someenhanced oil recoveryis carried out at Batı Raman.[31]As well as crude oil, the country imports oil products, diesel, LPG andpetcoke—which is used to make cement—and as of 2020,the country's energy import bill closely tracks the price of crude oil.[32]TPAO, which does most of the oil and gas exploration,[33]increased offshore exploration in 2020.[34]

Diesel fuel imported from Russia is shipped to Turkey from the Black Sea ports ofNovorossiisk,TuapseandTaman.[35]Only China and India buy more Russian oil than Turkey.[36]

Transport

[edit]
See also:Category:Oil pipelines in Turkey
A medium size ship in front of a hazy city skyline
Smalltankers,like this one, sometimes carry oil fromNovorossiiskon theBlack Sea,and pass through theBosphorosto supply refineries nearİzmir.

TheKirkuk–Ceyhan oil pipelinehas a capacity of 1.6 million barrels a day (mbd). Russian andCaspianoil is transported by ship through theBosporus.[37]In 2005, an oil-spill response law was passed in Turkey,[38]and in 2022, oil-tanker insurance was made compulsory.[39]As well asdrillships,there are two seismic ships.[40]

Turkey's oil imports from Russia increased after the 2022Russian invasion of Ukraine.[41]TheEuropean Union(EU) has banned direct imports of oil products from Russia since 2023,[42][43]but indirect imports continue as of 2024.[44]As of 2023,Turkey consumes large quantities of cheap Russian diesel, which may be freeing up diesel from Turkish refineries to be exported to the EU.[45]Oil tankersfromNovorossiyskdeliver toKorfezandAliağa,near Turkey's third-biggest cityİzmir.[46]In October 2022, almost half of Russia's Black Sea crude was sent to Turkey[47]but it was unclear whether theEU oil price capwould affect Turkey.[48]Some Russian oil goes throughDörtyol terminalinHatay.[49]Most Russian diesel exports go to Turkey[50]because the EU has sanctioned such imports.[51]

There is a port at Aliağa calledNemrut Bay.[52]TheKirkuk–Ceyhan oil pipelinehas a capacity of 1.6 mbd and theBaku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan (BTC) pipeline1 mbd. Most exports from thepetroleum industry in Azerbaijantransit Turkey[53]because their light oil fetches a premium price on the world market.[54]A small amount is shipped to the BTC pipeline from Kazakhstan.[55]In 2024 protesters against the war in Gaza called for transit of crude and refined products to Israel to be stopped.[56]

Processing and storage

[edit]
Many large metal structures, cylindrical tanks and chimneys next to a large road
TheStar Aegeanrefinery inİzmirbelongs toSOCAR(the state-owned oil company of Azerbaijan), and produces mostlydieselfromAzerioil.[57][58]

Turkey's largest oil refiner isTüpraş[3]with four refineries. The newest refinery isStar Aegean,which is also in Aliağa and has over half the market for petroleum products.[59][3]Turkish oil'ssulfurcontent is generally high so refineries are being upgraded to meetMediterranean shipping sulfur limits,[60][61]which may be cut from 0.5% to 0.1%, possibly in 2025.[62]Together, the five refineries have a capacity of over 400 million tons a year (815,000 mbd) as of 2022.[63]Although refineries prefer to produce diesel rather thanjet fuel,half of the country's diesel has to be imported.[63]

Retail and consumption

[edit]

There is a biennial trade fair in Istanbul.[64]In 2022, 28 billion litres of diesel and 4 billion litres of petrol were sold in Turkey.[65]Seventy percent of cars registered in 2022 were petrol, 18% diesel and 9% hybrid; and of cars on the road that year, 37% were diesel, 35% LPG and 27% petrol.[66]In mid 2023 theretail priceof a litre of petrol was 24 lira (a tad under 1 USD at that time so slightly less than the USA price[67]) and diesel cost slightly less.[68]The government says that it varies thespecial consumption taxto try and smooth out retail price variations due to oil price and exchange rate fluctuations.[69]

Jet fuelcost the equivalent of 55 US cents a litre at that time.[70]Over one hundred thousand barrels of jet fuel are sold in a typical year.[71]Lessbunker fuelwas sold in 2022, because of the decline in shipping due theRussian invasion of Ukraine.[72]

Economics

[edit]

According to some analysts, the cost of imported oil and gas is a key weakness in theeconomy of Turkey.[73][74]Turkey buysUrals crudefrom Russia because it is cheaper than oil from other countries.[75][76]Russian oil is refined and the refined products are sold abroad.[77]

Subsidies and taxes

[edit]
Medium sized ship viewed from starboard. Painted mostly red with the Turkish crescent and star in white near the bow. Above the bow is a helicopter deck and there is a large derrick amidships. Two small cranes are built into the side of the ship.
TheKanuniis anoffshore deep-sea drillingship.[78]

In Turkey, tax levied on diesel is lower than that on petrol, and it has been suggested by theIstanbul International Centre for Energy and ClimateatSabancı Universitythat taxes on diesel and petrol should be more-closely aligned with each other to minimise imports, because Turkey has enough petrol-refining capacity.[79]

In 2022 the Turkish Energy Minister said Turkey andAlgeriawould create a joint oil-and-gas-exploration company.[80]

Geopolitics

[edit]

In 2019, theEuropean Councilobjected to the Turkish drilling activities in the eastern Mediterranean.[81]

Unlike several European countries, whichstopped buying oil and gas from Russia or were cut offafter the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine,relations with Russiaare such Turkey continues to buy both commodities from Russia.[8][9]Turkey can consume discounted Russian diesel, and also buys discounted Russian crude, which it refines and sells legally as of 2022[b]as Turkish at the global price.[82]For example,ShellandVitolare claimed to have done this with SOCAR and Tüpraş, although there is no proof the purchased products were refined from Russian crude.[83]Crude from different countries is often blended at refineries so as of 2023, it is not possible to tell where a barrel of diesel originated from; NGOGlobal Witnesssaid the EU should ban products from refineries that refine Russian crude.[84]

It is sometimes difficult formedia in Turkeyto fully report on energygeopolitics.[85]Turkey's PresidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğansaid in 2022 Turkey could not join sanctions on Russia because of import dependency.[86]TPAO hopes to explore foroil and gas in Libyan waters,[87]and amemorandum of understandinghas been agreed with theLibyan government.

The two main political parties inNorthern IraqthePatriotic Union of Kurdistan(PUK) andKurdistan Democratic Party(KDP) would have to agree for a new pipeline to take the shortest route because oil would come from wells in the PUK-controlled area and pass through a KDP-controlled area.[88]In 2022, the IranianIslamic Revolutionary Guard Corpsstruck to stop a new pipeline.[89][90]

In 2023, theInternational Court of Arbitrationruled Turkey could not import from Iraqi Kurdistan without the consent of the Iraqi central government.[91]Sales from Iraq have been affected by discounted Russian crude.[92]

Reducing fossil fuel share of energy

[edit]

Turkey intends to increase the share ofrenewablesandnuclear powerin the national energy mix.[93]According to a May 2022 report fromthink tankEmber,wind powerandsolar powersaved Turkey seven billion dollars on gas imports in the preceding 12 months.[94]It is hoped furtherelectrification,of sectors such as road transport[95]will reduce Turkey's dependency on imported oil.

History

[edit]

During the early 20th century, theOttoman Empiregranted aconcessionallowingWilliam Knox D'Arcyto explore oil fields in its territories which, after thedissolution of the Ottoman Empire,became the modern countries Turkey and Iraq. In 1912, D'Arcy and other European partners founded the Turkish Petroleum Company, which was later renamed theIraq Petroleum Company.[96][97][98]

In late Ottoman times, permission to explore for oil in theİskenderunarea was granted to theGrand Vizier Kamil Pashaand later to Ahmet Necati Bey.[22]With the fall of the Ottoman Empire, oil and gas fields inMosul vilayet—of whichKirkukwas a part—were lost and since then, Turkey has had to rely on imports.[99]In 1926, the Turkish government took over oil exploration rights.[22]In 2001 natural gas was legally separated from oil.[22]TheGeneral Directorate of Mineral Research and Explorationwas formed.[22]The first oil imports from Russia arrived in 1986 and from Azerbaijan in 2007.[100]

Between 2000 and 2020, Turkey's share of imported energy increased from just over 50% to 70%.[101]In 2022, Turkey's oil consumption decreased due to theCOVID-19 pandemicand resulting travel restrictions.[14]: 19 Also in 2022, Middle Eastern crude imports were displaced by imports of discounted Russian crude, which tripled in the period from before theUkraine invasionto 1 January 2023.[92]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Source incorrectly says tons.
  2. ^In February 2023, however, an EU ban on direct importation of products refined from Russian crude started; products of Russian crude refined in other countries are legal.

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  101. ^"Turkey is faced with a serious energy crisis, says engineers chamber".Bianet.7 February 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 20 September 2022.Retrieved28 February2023.

Sources

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  • Difiglio, Prof. Carmine; Güray, Bora Şekip; Merdan, Ersin (November 2020).Turkey Energy Outlook.iicec.sabanciuniv.edu(Report). Sabanci University Istanbul International Center for Energy and Climate (IICEC).ISBN978-605-70031-9-5.
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