Old Norse

For other uses, seeNorse (disambiguation).

Not to be confused withOld North.

Old Norse
Old Nordic
dǫnsk tunga('Danish tongue') norrǿnt mál('Northern speech')
Native to	Scandinavia,Iceland,Faroe Islands,Greenlandand other Norse settlements
Region	Nordic countries,Great Britain,Ireland,Isle of Man,Normandy,Newfoundland,theVolgaand places in-between
Ethnicity	Norsemenand their descendants
Era	Evolved fromProto-Norsein the 8th century, developed into the variousNorth Germanic languagesby the 15th century
Language family	Indo-European Germanic North Germanic Old Norse
Early form	Proto-Norse(attested)
Writing system	Runic,laterLatin(Old Norse Alpha bet)
Language codes
ISO 639-2	non
ISO 639-3	non
Glottolog	oldn1244

Old Norse,Old Nordic,orOld Scandinavianis a stage of development ofNorth Germanic dialectsbefore their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants ofScandinaviaand theiroverseas settlementsand chronologically coincides with theViking Age,theChristianization of Scandinavia,and the consolidation of Scandinavian kingdoms from about the 8th to the 15th centuries.

TheProto-Norse languagedeveloped into Old Norse by the 8th century, and Old Norse began to develop into the modernNorth Germanic languagesin the mid- to late 14th century, ending the language phase known as Old Norse. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century.

Old Norse was divided into threedialects:Old West Norse(Old West Nordic, often referred to asOld Norse),Old East Norse(Old East Nordic), andOld Gutnish.Old West Norse and Old East Norse formed adialect continuum,with no clear geographical boundary between them. Old East Norse traits were found in easternNorway,althoughOld Norwegianis classified as Old West Norse, and Old West Norse traits were found in westernSweden.In what is present-dayDenmarkand Sweden, most speakers spoke Old East Norse. ThoughOld Gutnishis sometimes included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations, it developed its own unique features and shared in changes to both other branches.

The 12th-centuryIcelandicGray Goose Lawsstate thatSwedes,Norwegians,Icelanders,andDanesspoke the same language,dǫnsk tunga( "Danish tongue"; speakers of Old East Norse would have saiddansk tunga). Another term wasnorrœnt mál( "northern speech" ). Today Old Norse has developed into the modernNorth Germanic languagesIcelandic,Faroese,Norwegian,Danish,Swedish,and other North Germanic varieties of which Norwegian, Danish and Swedish retainconsiderable mutual intelligibility.Icelandic remains the most conservative language, such that in present-day Iceland, schoolchildren are able to read the 12th-century Icelandic sagas in the original language (in editions with normalised spelling).

Geographical distribution

The approximate extent of Old Norse and related languages in the early 10th century:

Old West Norse dialect

Old East Norse dialect

Old Gutnish dialect

Old English

Crimean Gothic

OtherGermanic languageswith which Old Norse still retained some mutual intelligibility

Old Icelandicwas very close toOld Norwegian,and together they formedOld West Norse,which was also spoken inNorsesettlementsinGreenland,theFaroes,Ireland,Scotland,theIsle of Man,northwest England, and inNormandy.Old East Norsewas spoken in Denmark, Sweden,Kievan Rus',eastern England, andDanishsettlementsin Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken inGotlandand in various settlements in the East.

In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spokenEuropean language,ranging fromVinlandin the West to theVolga Riverin the East. InKievan Rus',it survived the longest inVeliky Novgorod,probably lasting into the 13th century there.The age of theSwedish-speaking population of Finlandis strongly contested, butSwedishsettlement had spread thelanguageinto the region by the time of theSecond Swedish Crusadein the 13th century at the latest.

Modern descendants

Main article:North Germanic languages

The modern descendants of the Old West Norse dialect are the West Scandinavian languages ofIcelandic,Faroese,Norwegian,and the extinctNorn languageofOrkneyandShetland;the descendants of the Old East Norse dialect are the East Scandinavian languages ofDanishandSwedish.Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has been heavily influenced by East Norse, particularly during theDenmark–Norwayunion.

Among these, the grammar of Icelandic and Faroese have changed the least from Old Norse in the last thousand years. In contrast, the pronunciations of both Icelandic and Faroese have changed considerably from Old Norse. With Danish rule of the Faroe Islands, Faroese has also been influenced by Danish.

BothMiddle English(especiallynorthern English dialectswithin the area of theDanelaw) andEarly Scots(includingLowland Scots) were stronglyinfluenced by Norseand contained many Old Norseloanwords.Consequently, Modern English (includingScottish English), inherited a significant proportion of its vocabulary directly from Norse.

The development ofNorman Frenchwas also influenced by Norse. Through Norman, to a smaller extent, so was modern French.

Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norsephonemicwriting system. Contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the vowel phonemes, has changed at least as much in Icelandic as in the other North Germanic languages.

Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, andGaelic(Scottishand/orIrish).Although Swedish, Danish and Norwegian have diverged the most, they still retainconsiderable mutual intelligibility.Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, particularly if speaking slowly. The languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders. This could be because these languages have been mutually affected by each other, as well as having a similar development influenced byMiddle Low German.

Other influenced languages

Various languages unrelated to Old Norse and others not closely related have been heavily influenced by Norse, particularly theNorman language;to a lesser extent,FinnishandEstonian.Russian,Ukrainian,Belarusian,LithuanianandLatvianalso have a few Norse loanwords. The wordsRusandRussia,according to one theory, may be named after theRus' people,a Norse tribe, probably from present-day east-central Sweden. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden areRuotsiandRootsi,respectively.

A number of loanwords have been introduced intoIrish,many associated with fishing and sailing.A similar influence is found inScottish Gaelic,with over one hundred loanwords estimated to be in the language, many of which are related to fishing and sailing.

Phonology

Vowels

The vowel phonemes mostly come in pairs of long and short. Thestandardized orthographymarks the long vowels with an acute accent. In medieval manuscripts, it is often unmarked but sometimes marked with an accent or throughgemination.

Old Norse had nasalized versions of all ten vowel places.These occurred as allophones of the vowels before nasal consonants and in places where a nasal had followed it in an older form of the word, before it was absorbed into a neighboring sound. If the nasal was absorbed by a stressed vowel, it would also lengthen the vowel. This nasalization also occurred in the other Germanic languages, but were not retained long. They were noted in theFirst Grammatical Treatise,and otherwise might have remained unknown. The First Grammarian marked these with a dot above the letter.This notation did not catch on, and would soon be obsolete. Nasal and oral vowels probably merged around the 11th century in most of Old East Norse.However, the distinction still holds inDalecarlian dialects.The dots in the following vowel table separate the oral fromnasalphonemes.

Generic vowel systemc. 9th–12th centuries

	Front vowels				Back vowels
	Unrounded		Rounded		Unrounded		Rounded
Close	i•ĩ	iː•ĩː	y•ỹ	yː•ỹː			u•ũ	uː•ũː
Mid	e•ẽ	eː•ẽː	ø•ø̃	øː•ø̃ː			o•õ	oː•õː
Open, open-mid	ɛ•ɛ̃	ɛː•ɛ̃ː	œ•œ̃		a•ã	aː•ãː	ɔ•ɔ̃	ɔː•ɔ̃ː

Note: The open or open-mid vowels may be transcribed differently:

• /æ/=/ɛ/
• /ɒ/=/ɔ/
• /ɑ/=/a/

Sometime around the 13th century,/ɔ/(spelled⟨ǫ⟩) merged with/ø/or/o/in most dialects exceptOld Danish,and Icelandic where/ɔ/(ǫ) merged with/ø/.This can be determined by their distinction within the 12th-centuryFirst Grammatical Treatisebut not within the early 13th-centuryProse Edda.The nasal vowels, also noted in the First Grammatical Treatise, are assumed to have been lost in most dialects by this time (but notably they are retained inElfdalianand other dialects ofOvansiljan). SeeOld Icelandicfor the mergers of/øː/(spelled⟨œ⟩) with/ɛː/(spelled⟨æ⟩) and/ɛ/(spelled⟨ę⟩) with/e/(spelled⟨e⟩).

Generic vowel systemc. 13th–14th centuries

	Front vowels				Back vowels
	Unrounded		Rounded		Unrounded		Rounded
High	i	iː	y	yː			u	uː
Mid	e	eː	ø	øː			o	oː
Low/Low-mid	ɛ	ɛː			a	aː

Old Norse had threediphthongphonemes:/ɛi/,/ɔu/,/øy~ɛy/(spelled⟨ei⟩,⟨au⟩,⟨ey⟩respectively). In East Norse these wouldmonophthongizeand merge with/eː/and/øː/,whereas in West Norse and its descendants the diphthongs remained.

History of Old Norse and Old Icelandic vowels

Proto-Germanic	Northwest Germanic	Primitive Old West Norse	Old Icelandic (1st Grammarian)	Later Old Icelandic	Example (Old Norse)
a	a	a⟨a⟩	a	a	land"land" <*landą
a	a(+i-mut)	ɛ⟨ę⟩	e⟨e⟩	e	menn"men" <*manniz
a	a(+u/w-mut)	ɔ⟨ǫ⟩	ɔ	ø⟨ö⟩	lǫnd"lands" <*landu<*landō; sǫngr"song" <sǫngr<*sangwaz
a	a(+i-mut +w-mut)	œ⟨ø₂⟩	ø	ø⟨ö⟩	gøra"to make" <*garwijaną
æː⟨ē⟩	aː	aː⟨á⟩	aː	aː	láta"to let" <*lētaną
æː⟨ē⟩	aː(+i-mut)	ɛː⟨æ⟩	ɛː	ɛː	mæla"to speak" <*mālijan<*mēlijaną
æː⟨ē⟩	aː(+u-mut)	ɔː⟨ǫ́⟩	ɔː	aː⟨á⟩	mǫ́l"meals" < '*mālu<*mēlō
e	e	e⟨e⟩	e	e	sex"six" <*seks; bresta"to burst" <*brestaną
e	e(+u/w-mut)	ø⟨ø₁⟩	ø	ø⟨ö⟩	tøgr"ten" <*teguz
e	e(broken)	ea⟨ea⟩	ja⟨ja⟩	ja	gjalda"to repay" <*geldaną
e	e(broken +u/w-mut)	eo/io⟨eo⟩/⟨io⟩	jo>jɔ⟨jǫ⟩	jø⟨jö⟩	skjǫldr"shield" <*skelduz
eː⟨ē₂⟩	eː	eː⟨é⟩	eː	eː	lét"let (past tense)" <*lē₂t
i	i	i⟨i⟩	i	i	mikill"great" <*mikilaz
i	i(+w-mut)	y⟨y⟩	y	y(ː)	slyngva"to sling" <*slingwaną
iː	iː	iː⟨í⟩	iː	iː	líta"to look" <*lītaną
oː	oː	oː⟨ó⟩	oː	oː	fór"went" <*fōr; mót"meeting" <*mōtą
oː	oː(+i-mut)	øː⟨œ⟩	øː	ɛː⟨æ⟩	mœðr"mothers" <*mōdriz
u	u	u⟨u⟩	u	u	una"to be content" <*unaną
u	u(+i-mut)	y⟨y⟩	y	y	kyn"race" <*kunją
u	u(+a-mut)	o⟨o⟩	o	o	fogl/fugl"bird" <*fuglaz; morginn"morning" <*murganaz
uː	uː	uː⟨ú⟩	uː	uː	drúpa"to droop" <*drūpaną
uː	uː(+i-mut)	yː⟨ý⟩	yː	yː	mýss"mice" <*mūsiz
ai	ai	ai>ɛi⟨ei⟩	ɛi	ɛi	bein,Gut.bain"bone" <*bainą
ai	ai(+w-mut)	øy⟨ey⟩,⟨øy⟩	øy⟨ey⟩	ɛy	kveykva"to kindle" <*kwaikwaną
au	au	au>ɔu⟨au⟩	ɔu⟨au⟩	au	lauss"loose" <*lausaz
au	au(+i-mut)	øy⟨ey⟩,⟨øy⟩	øy⟨ey⟩	ɛy	leysa"to loosen" <*lausijaną
eu	eu	eu⟨eu⟩	juː⟨jú⟩	juː	djúpr"deep" <*deupaz
eu	eu(+dental)	eo⟨eo⟩	joː⟨jó⟩	juː	bjóða/bjúða"to offer" <*beudaną
Ṽ	Ṽ	Ṽ	Ṽ	V	komȧ<*kwemaną"to come, arrive"; OWNvėtr/vėttr<vintr<*wintruz"winter"
Ṽː	Ṽː	Ṽː	Ṽː	Vː	hȧ́r"shark" <*hanhaz; ȯ́rar"our" (pl.) <*unseraz; ø̇́rȧ"younger" (acc. neut. wk.) <*junhizą

Consonants

Old Norse has six plosive phonemes,/p/being rare word-initially and/d/and/b/pronounced as voiced fricativeallophonesbetween vowels except in compound words (e.g.veðrabati), already in theProto-Germanic language(e.g.*b*[β]>[v]between vowels). The/ɡ/phoneme was pronounced as[ɡ]after an/n/or another/ɡ/and as[k]before/s/and/t/.Some accounts have it a voiced velar fricative[ɣ]in all cases, and others have that realisation only in the middle of words and between vowels (with it otherwise being realised[ɡ]).The Old East Norse/ʀ/was anapical consonant,with its precise position unknown; it is reconstructed as a palatalsibilant.It descended from Proto-Germanic/z/and eventually developed into/r/,as had already occurred in Old West Norse.

	Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Labiovelar	Glottal
Plosive	pb	td			kɡ
Nasal	m	n			(ŋ)
Fricative	f(v)	θ(ð)	s	ʀ	(ɣ)		h
Trill			r
Approximant				j		w
Lateral approximant			l

The consonant digraphs⟨hl⟩,⟨hr⟩,and⟨hn⟩occurred word-initially. It is unclear whether they were sequences of two consonants (with the first element realised as/h/or perhaps/x/) or as single voiceless sonorants/l̥/,/r̥/and/n̥/respectively. In Old Norwegian, Old Danish and later Old Swedish, the groups⟨hl⟩,⟨hr⟩,and⟨hn⟩were reduced to plain⟨l⟩,⟨r⟩,⟨n⟩,which suggests that they had most likely already been pronounced as voiceless sonorants by Old Norse times.

The pronunciation of⟨hv⟩is unclear, but it may have been/xʷ/(the Proto-Germanic pronunciation),/hʷ/or the similar phoneme/ʍ/.Unlike the three other digraphs, it was retained much longer in all dialects. Without ever developing into a voiceless sonorant in Icelandic, it instead underwentfortitionto a plosive/kv/,which suggests that instead of being a voiceless sonorant, it retained a stronger frication.

Accent

See also:Danish stød,Norwegian tonal stress,andSwedish tonal stress

Primarystressin Old Norse falls on theword stem,so thathyrjarwould be pronounced/ˈhyr.jar/.In compound words, secondary stress falls on the second stem (e.g.lærisveinn,/ˈlɛːɾ.iˌswɛinː/).

Orthography

Main article:Old Norse orthography

Unlike Proto-Norse, which was written with theElder Futhark,runicOld Norse was originally written with theYounger Futhark,which had only 16 letters. Because of the limited number of runes, several runes were used for different sounds, and long and short vowels were not distinguished in writing.Medieval runescame into use some time later.

As for theLatin Alpha bet,there was no standardized orthography in use in the Middle Ages. A modified version of the letterwynncalledvendwas used briefly for the sounds/u/,/v/,and/w/.Long vowels were sometimes marked with acutes but also sometimes left unmarked or geminated. Thestandardized Old Norse spellingwas created in the 19th century and is, for the most part, phonemic. The most notable deviation is that the nonphonemic difference between thevoicedand thevoiceless dental fricativeis marked. The oldest texts andrunic inscriptionsuseþexclusively. Long vowels are denoted withacutes.Most other letters are written with the same glyph as theIPAphoneme, except as shown in the table below.

Phonological processes

Ablaut

Ablautpatterns are groups of vowels which are swapped, orablauted,in thenucleusof a word.Strong verbsablaut thelemma's nucleus to derive the past forms of the verb. This parallels English conjugation, where, e.g., the nucleus ofsingbecomessangin the past tense andsungin the past participle. Some verbs are derived by ablaut, as thepresent-in-past verbsdo by consequence of being derived from the past tense forms of strong verbs.

Umlaut

See also:Germanic umlautandOld Norse morphophonology

Umlaut or mutation is anassimilatoryprocess acting on vowels preceding a vowel or semivowel of a differentvowel backness.In the case ofi-umlautandʀ-umlaut,this entails a fronting of back vowels, with retention of lip rounding. In the case ofu-umlaut,this entailslabializationof unrounded vowels. Umlaut is phonemic and in many situations grammatically significant as a side effect of losing theProto-Germanic morphological suffixeswhose vowels created the umlautallophones.

Some/y/,/yː/,/ø/,/øː/,/ɛ/,/ɛː/,/øy/,and all/ɛi/were obtained byi-umlautfrom/u/,/uː/,/o/,/oː/,/a/,/aː/,/au/,and/ai/respectively. Others were formed via ʀ-umlaut from/u/,/uː/,/a/,/aː/,and/au/.

Some/y/,/yː/,/ø/,/øː/,and all/ɔ/,/ɔː/were obtained by u-umlaut from/i/,/iː/,/e/,/eː/,and/a/,/aː/respectively. SeeOld Icelandicfor information on/ɔː/.

/œ/was obtained through a simultaneous u- and i-umlaut of/a/.It appears in words likegøra(gjǫra,geyra), from Proto-Germanic*garwijaną,and commonly in verbs with a velar consonant before the suffix likesøkkva<*sankwijaną.

OEN often preserves the original value of the vowel directly preceding runicʀwhile OWN receives ʀ-umlaut. Compare runic OENglaʀ, haʀi, hrauʀwith OWNgler, heri(laterhéri),hrøyrr/hreyrr( "glass", "hare", "pile of rocks" ).

U-umlaut

U-umlaut is more common in Old West Norse in both phonemic and allophonic positions, while it only occurs sparsely in post-runic Old East Norse and even in runic Old East Norse.

Comparison demonstrating U-Umlaut in Swedish

Meaning	West Old Norse	Old Swedish[1]	Modern Swedish		Icelandic
			Transcription	IPA	Transcription	IPA
Guardian / Caretaker	vǫrðr	varþer	vård	[voːɖ]	vörður	[ˈvœrðʏr]
Eagle	ǫrn	ørn	örn	[œːɳ]	örn	[œrtn]
Earth	jǫrð	iorþ	jord[2]	[juːɖ]	jörð	[jœrð]
Milk	mjǫlk	miolk	mjölk[2]	[mjœlk]	mjólk	[mjoul̥k]

^{^}Old Swedish orthographyuses⟨þ⟩to represent both/ð/and/θ/.The change from Norse⟨ð⟩to Old Swedish⟨þ⟩represents only a change in orthography rather than a change in sound. Similarly⟨i⟩is used in place of⟨j⟩.And thus changes from Norse⟨j⟩to Old Swedish⟨i⟩to Swedish⟨j⟩should be viewed as a change in orthography.

^{^}Represents the u-umlaut found in Swedish.

This is still a major difference between Swedish and Faroese and Icelandic today. Plurals of neuters do not have u-umlaut at all in Swedish, but in Faroese and Icelandic they do, for example the Faroese and Icelandic plurals of the wordland,londandlöndrespectively, in contrast to the Swedish plurallandand numerous other examples. That also applies to almost all feminine nouns, for example the largest feminine noun group, theo-stemnouns (except the Swedish nounjordmentioned above), and eveni-stemnouns androot nouns,such as Old West Norsemǫrk(mörkin Icelandic) in comparison with Modern and Old Swedishmark.

Breaking

See also:Vowel breaking

Vowel breaking, or fracture, caused a front vowel to be split into a semivowel-vowel sequence before a back vowel in the following syllable.While West Norse only broke/e/,East Norse also broke/i/.The change was blocked by a/w/,/l/,or/ʀ/preceding the potentially-broken vowel.

Some/ja/or/jɔ/and/jaː/or/jɔː/result from breaking of/e/and/eː/respectively.

Assimilation or elision of inflectionalʀ

When a noun, pronoun, adjective, or verb has a long vowel or diphthong in the accented syllable and its stem ends in a singlel,n,ors,ther(or the elderr- orz-variantʀ) in an ending is assimilated.When the accented vowel is short, the ending is dropped.

The nominative of the strong masculine declension and some i-stem feminine nouns uses one such -r (ʀ).Óðin-r(Óðin-ʀ) becomesÓðinninstead of*Óðinr(*Óðinʀ).

The verbblása('to blow'), has third person present tenseblæss('[he] blows') rather than*blæsr(*blæsʀ).Similarly, the verbskína('to shine') had present tense third personskínn(rather than*skínr,*skínʀ); whilekala('to cool down') had present tense third personkell(rather than*kelr,*kelʀ).

The rule is not absolute, with certain counter-examples such asvinr('friend'), which has the synonymvin,yet retains the unabsorbed version, andjǫtunn('giant'), where assimilation takes place even though the root vowel,ǫ,is short.

The clusters*/Clʀ,Csʀ,Cnʀ,Crʀ/cannot yield*/Clː,Csː,Cnː,Crː/respectively, instead/Cl,Cs,Cn,Cr/.The effect of this shortening can result in the lack of distinction between some forms of the noun. In the case ofvetr('winter'), the nominative and accusative singular and plural forms are identical. The nominative singular and nominative and accusative plural would otherwise have beenOWN*vetrr,OEN*wintrʀ.These forms are impossible because the cluster*/Crʀ/cannot be realized as/Crː/,nor as*/Crʀ/,nor as*/Cʀː/.The same shortening as invetralso occurs inlax=laks('salmon') (as opposed to*lakss,*laksʀ),botn('bottom') (as opposed to*botnn,*botnʀ), andjarl(as opposed to*jarll,*jarlʀ).

Furthermore, wherever the cluster*/rʀ/is expected to exist, such as in the male namesRagnarr,Steinarr(supposedly*Ragnarʀ,*Steinarʀ), the result is apparently always/rː/rather than*/rʀ/or*/ʀː/.This is observable in the Runic corpus.

Phonotactics

Blocking of ii, uu

In Old Norse,i/jadjacent toi,e,their u-umlauts, andæwas not possible, noru/vadjacent tou,o,their i-umlauts, andǫ.At the beginning of words, this manifested as a dropping of the initial/j/(which was general, independent of the following vowel) or/v/.Compare ONorð,úlfr,árwith Englishword, wolf, year.In inflections, this manifested as the dropping of the inflectional vowels. Thus,klæði+dat-iremainsklæði,andsjáumin Icelandic progressed tosjǫ́um>sjǫ́m>sjám.The*jjand*wwof Proto-Germanic becameggjandggvrespectively in Old Norse, a change known asHoltzmann's law.

Epenthesis

Anepentheticvowel became popular by 1200 in Old Danish, 1250 in Old Swedish and Old Norwegian, and 1300 in Old Icelandic.An unstressed vowel was used which varied by dialect. Old Norwegian exhibited all three:/u/was used in West Norwegian south ofBergen,as inaftur,aftor(olderaptr); North of Bergen,/i/appeared inaftir,after;and East Norwegian used/a/,after,aftær.

Grammar

Old Norse was a moderatelyinflectedlanguage with high levels of nominal and verbal inflection. Most of the fusedmorphemesare retained in modern Icelandic, especially in regard to noun case declensions, whereas modern Norwegian in comparison has moved towards more analytical word structures.

Gender

Further information:Grammatical gender

Old Norse had threegrammatical genders– masculine, feminine, and neuter. Adjectives or pronouns referring to a noun mustmirror the gender of that noun,so that one says, "heill maðr!"but,"heilt barn!".As in other languages, the grammatical gender of an impersonal noun is generally unrelated to an expected natural gender of that noun. While indeedkarl,"man" is masculine,kona,"woman", is feminine, andhús,"house", is neuter, so also arehrafnandkráka,for "raven" and "crow", masculine and feminine respectively, even in reference to a female raven or a male crow.

All neuter words have identical nominative and accusative forms,and all feminine words have identical nominative and accusative plurals.

The gender of some words' plurals does not agree with that of their singulars, such aslimandmund.Some words, such ashungr,have multiple genders, evidenced by theirdeterminersbeing declined in different genders within a given sentence.

Morphology

Main article:Old Norse morphology

Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns weredeclinedin four grammatical cases –nominative,accusative,genitive,anddative– in singular and plural numbers. Adjectives and pronouns were additionally declined in three grammatical genders. Some pronouns (first and second person) could havedual numberin addition to singular and plural. The genitive was usedpartitivelyand in compounds andkennings(e.g.,Urðarbrunnr,the well of Urðr;Lokasenna,thegibingof Loki).

There were several classes of nouns within each gender. The following is an example of the "strong"inflectional paradigms:

The strong masculine nounarmr(English "arm" )

	Singular	Plural
Nominative	armr	armar
Accusative	arm	arma
Genitive	arms
Dative	armi	ǫrmum/armum

The feminine nounhǫll(OWN),hall(OEN) (English "hall" )

		Old West Norse	Old East Norse
Nominative- Accusative	Singular	hǫll	hall
	Plural	hallir	hallar
Genitive	Singular	hallar
	Plural	halla
Dative	Singular	hǫllu	hallu
	Plural	hǫllum	hallum

The neuter nountroll(Englishtroll)

	Singular	Plural
Nominative-Accusative	troll
Genitive	trolls	trolla
Dative	trolli	trollum

The numerous "weak" noun paradigms had a much higher degree of syncretism between the different cases; i.e. they had fewer forms than the "strong" nouns.

A definite article was realised as a suffix that retained an independent declension; e.g.,troll(a troll) –trollit(the troll),hǫll(a hall) –hǫllin(the hall),armr(an arm) –armrinn(the arm). This definite article, however, was a separate word and did not become attached to the noun before later stages of the Old Norse period.

Texts

The earliest inscriptions in Old Norse arerunic,from the 8th century. Runes continued to be commonly used until the 15th century and have been recorded to be in use in some form as late as the 19th century in some parts of Sweden. With theconversion to Christianityin the 11th century came theLatin Alpha bet.The oldest preserved texts in Old Norse in the Latin Alpha bet date from the middle of the 12th century. Subsequently, Old Norse became the vehicle of a large and varied body of vernacular literature. Most of the surviving literature was written in Iceland. Best known are theNorse sagas,theIcelanders' sagasand the mythological literature, but there also survives a large body of religious literature, translations into Old Norse ofcourtly romances,classical mythology, and the Old Testament, as well as instructional material,grammatical treatisesand a large body of letters and official documents.

Dialects

Most of the innovations that appeared in Old Norse spread evenly through the Old Norse area. As a result, the dialects were very similar and considered to be the same language, a language that they sometimes called the Danish tongue (Dǫnsk tunga), sometimes Norse language (Norrœnt mál), as evidenced in the following two quotes fromHeimskringlabySnorri Sturluson:

Móðir Dyggva var Drótt, dóttir Danps konungs, sonar Rígs er fyrstr var konungr kallaðr á danska tungu.

Dyggvi's mother was Drott, the daughter of king Danp, Ríg's son, who was the first to be called king in the Danish tongue.

—Heimskringla,Ynglinga saga § 20.Dauði Dyggva

...stirt var honum norrœnt mál, ok kylfdi mᴊǫk til orðanna, ok hǫfðu margir menn þat mᴊǫk at spotti.

...the Norse language was hard for him, and he often fumbled for words, which amused people greatly.

—Heimskringla,Saga Sigurðar Jórsalafara, Eysteins ok Ólafs § 35(34).Frá veðjan Haralds ok Magnús

However, some changes were geographically limited and so created a dialectal difference between Old West Norse and Old East Norse.

As Proto-Norse evolved into Old Norse, in the 8th century, the effects of theumlautsseem to have been very much the same over the whole Old Norse area. But in later dialects of the language a split occurred mainly between west and east as the use of umlauts began to vary. The typical umlauts (for examplefyllafromfullijan) were better preserved in the West due to later generalizations in the east where many instances of umlaut were removed (many archaic Eastern texts as well as eastern runic inscriptions however portray the same extent of umlauts as in later Western Old Norse).

All the while, the changes resulting inbreaking(for examplehiartafrom*hertō) were more influential in the East probably once again due to generalizations within the inflectional system. This difference was one of the greatest reasons behind the dialectalization that took place in the 9th and 10th centuries, shaping an Old West Norse dialect in Norway and the Atlantic settlements and an Old East Norse dialect in Denmark and Sweden.

Old West Norse and Old Gutnish did not take part in the monophthongization which changedæi(ei) intoē,øy(ey) andauintoø̄,nor did certain peripheral dialects of Swedish, as seen in modernOstrobothnian dialects.Another difference was that Old West Norse lost certain combinations of consonants. The combinations-mp-,-nt-,and-nk-were assimilated into-pp-,-tt-and-kk-in Old West Norse, but this phenomenon was limited in Old East Norse.

Here is a comparison between the two dialects as well as Old Gutnish. It is a transcription from one of theFunbo Runestonesin Sweden (U 990) from the eleventh century:

Veðr

Weðr

Weðr

ok

ok

ok

Þegn

Þegn

Þegn

ok

ok

ok

Gunnarr

Gunnarr

Gunnarr

reistu

ræistu

raistu

stein

stæin

stain

þenna

þenna

þenna

at

at

at

Haursa,

Haursa,

Haursa,

fǫður

faður

faður

sinn.

sinn.

sinn.

Guð

Guð

Guð

hjalpi

hialpi

hialpi

ǫnd

and

and

hans.

hans

hans

(Old West Norse)

(Old East Norse)

(Old Gutnish)

Veðr ok Þegn ok Gunnarr reistu stein þenna at Haursa, fǫður sinn. Guð hjalpi ǫnd hans.

Weðr ok Þegn ok Gunnarr ræistu stæin þenna at Haursa, faður sinn. Guð hialpi and hans

Weðr ok Þegn ok Gunnarr raistu stain þenna at Haursa, faður sinn. Guð hialpi and hans

translation: 'Veðr and Thegn and Gunnar raised this stone after Haursi, their father. God help his spirit'

The OEN original text above is transliterated according to traditional scholarly methods, wherein u-umlaut is not regarded in runic Old East Norse. Modern studieshave shown that the positions where it applies are the same as for runic Old West Norse. An alternative and probably more accurate transliteration would therefore render the text in OEN as such:

Weðr ok Þegn ok Gunnarr ræistu stæin þenna at Haursa, fǫður sinn. Guð hialpi ǫnd hans (OEN)

Somepast participlesand other words underwent i-umlaut in Old West Norse but not in Old East Norse dialects. Examples of that are Icelandicslegið/sleginnandtekið/tekinn,which in Swedish areslagit/slagenandtagit/tagen.This can also be seen in the Icelandic and Norwegian wordssterkurandsterk( "strong" ), which in Swedish isstarkas in Old Swedish.These differences can also be seen in comparison between Norwegian and Swedish.

Old West Norse

Old West Norseis by far the best attested variety of Old Norse.The termOld Norseis often used to refer to Old West Norse specifically, in which case the broader subject receives another name, such asOld Scandinavian.Another designation isOld West Nordic.

The combinations-mp-,-nt-,and-nk-mostly merged to-pp-,-tt-and-kk-in Old West Norse around the 7th century, marking the first distinction between the Eastern and Western dialects.The following table illustrates this:

English	Old West Norse	Old East Norse	Proto-Norse
mushroom	s(v)ǫppr	swampʀ	*swampuz
steep	brattr	brantʀ	*brantaz
widow	ekkja	ænkija	*ain(a)kjōn
to shrink	kreppa	krimpa	*krimpan
to sprint	spretta	sprinta	*sprintan
to sink	søkkva	sænkwa	*sankwijan

An early difference between Old West Norse and the other dialects was that Old West Norse had the formsbú,"dwelling",kú,"cow" (accusative) andtrú,"faith", whereas Old East Norsebó,kóandtró.Old West Norse was also characterized by the preservation ofu-umlaut, which meant that, for example,Proto-Norse*tanþu,"tooth", becametǫnnand nottannas in post-runic Old East Norse; OWNgǫ́sand runic OENgǫ́s,while post-runic OENgás"goose".

The earliest body of text appears inrunic inscriptionsand in poems composedc. 900byÞjóðólfr of Hvinir(although the poems are not preserved in contemporary sources, but only in much later manuscripts). The earliest manuscripts are from the period 1150–1200 and concern legal, religious and historical matters. During the 12th and 13th centuries,TrøndelagandWestern Norwaywere the most important areas of the Norwegian kingdom and they shaped Old West Norse as an archaic language with a rich set of declensions. In the body of text that has survived into the modern day from untilc. 1300,Old West Norse had little dialect variation, andOld Icelandicdoes not diverge much more than theOld Norwegiandialects do from each other.

Old Norwegian differentiated early from Old Icelandic by the loss of the consonanthin initial position beforel,nandr;thus whereas Old Icelandic manuscripts might use the formhnefi,"fist", Old Norwegian manuscripts might usenefi.

From the late 13th century, Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian started to diverge more. Afterc. 1350,theBlack Deathand following social upheavals seem to have accelerated language changes in Norway. From the late 14th century, the language used in Norway is generally referred to asMiddle Norwegian.

Old West Norse underwent a lengthening of initial vowels at some point, especially in Norwegian, so that OWNetabecameéta,ONWakr>ákr,OICek>ék.

Old Icelandic

In Iceland, initial/w/before/ɾ/was lost:compare Icelandicrangurwith Danishvrang,OENwrangʀ.The change is shared with Old Gutnish.

A specifically Icelandic sound, the long,u-umlauted A, spelled⟨Ǫ́ ⟩and pronounced/ɔː/,developed around the early 11th century.It was short-lived, being marked in theGrammatical Treatisesand remaining until the end of the 12th century.It then merged back into/aː/;as a result, long A is not affected byu-umlaut in Modern Icelandic.

/w/merged with/v/during the 12th century,which caused/v/to become an independent phoneme from/f/and the written distinction of ⟨v⟩ for/v/from medial and final ⟨f⟩ to become merely etymological.

Around the 13th century,Œ/Ǿ(/øː/,which had probably already lowered to/œː/) merged toÆ(/ɛː/).Thus, pre-13th-centurygrœnn(with⟨œ⟩) 'green' became spelled as in modern Icelandicgrænn(with⟨æ⟩). The 12th-centuryGray Goose Lawsmanuscripts distinguish the vowels, and so does theCodex Regiuscopy.However, the 13th-century Codex Regius copy of thePoetic Eddaprobably relied on newer or poorer quality sources, or both. Demonstrating either difficulty with or total lack of natural distinction, the manuscripts show separation of the two phonemes in some places, but they frequently confuse the letters chosen to distinguish them in others.

Towards the end of the 13th century,Ę(/ɛ/) merged toE(/e/).

Old Norwegian

Further information:Old Norwegian

Around the 11th century, Old Norwegian ⟨hl⟩, ⟨hn⟩, and ⟨hr⟩ became ⟨l⟩, ⟨n⟩ and ⟨r⟩.It is debatable whether the ⟨hC⟩ sequences represented a consonant cluster (/hC/) or devoicing (/C̥/).

Orthographic evidence suggests that in a confined dialect of Old Norwegian,/ɔ/may have been unrounded before/u/and thatu-umlaut was reversed unless theuhad been eliminated:ǫll,ǫllum>ǫll,allum.

Greenlandic Norse

Further information:Greenlandic Norse

This dialect of Old West Norse was spoken by Icelandic colonies in Greenland. When the colonies died out around the 15th century, the dialect went with it. The phoneme/θ/and some instances of/ð/merged to/t/and so Old IcelandicÞórðrbecameTortr.

Text example

Further information:Old Norse orthography

The following text is fromAlexanders saga,anAlexander romance.The manuscript,AM 519 a 4to,is datedc. 1280.The facsimile demonstrates thesiglaused by scribes to write Old Norse. Many of them were borrowed from Latin. Without familiarity with these abbreviations, the facsimile will be unreadable to many. In addition, reading the manuscript itself requires familiarity with the letterforms of the native script. The abbreviations are expanded in a version with normalized spelling like that of thestandard normalizationsystem. Compared to the spelling of the same text in Modern Icelandic, pronunciation has changed greatly, but spelling has changed little sinceIcelandic orthographywas intentionally modelled after Old Norse in the 19th century.

Digital facsimile of the manuscript text	The same text with normalized spelling	The same text with ModernIcelandicspelling
[...] ſem oꝩın͛ h̅ſ brıgzloðo h̅o̅ epꞇ͛ þͥ ſe̅ ſıðaʀ mon ſagꞇ verða. Þeſſı ſveın̅ aͬ.* ꝩar ıſcola ſeꞇꞇr ſem ſıðꝩenıa e͛ ꞇıl rıkra man̅a vꞇan-lanꝺz aꞇ laꞇa g͛a vıð boꝛn̅ ſíıƞ́ Meıſꞇarı ꝩar h̅o̅ ꝼengın̅ ſa e͛ arıſꞇoꞇıleſ heꞇ. h̅ ꝩar harðla goðꝛ clercr ⁊en̅meſꞇı ſpekıngr aꞇ ꝩıꞇı. ⁊ er h̅ ꝩͬ.xíí. veꞇᷓ gamall aꞇ allꝺrı nalıga alroſcın̅ aꞇ ꝩıꞇı. en ſꞇoꝛhvgaðꝛ u̅ ꝼᷓm alla ſına ıaꝼnallꝺꝛa.	[...] sem óvinir hans brigzluðu honum eftir því, sem síðarr man sagt verða. þessi sveinn Alexander var í skóla settr, sem siðvenja er til ríkra manna útanlands at láta gera við bǫrn sín. meistari var honum fenginn sá, er Aristoteles hét. hann var harðla góðr klerkr ok inn mesti spekingr at viti. ok er hann var tólv vetra gamall at aldri, náliga alroskinn at viti, en stórhugaðr umfram alla sína jafnaldra, [...]	[...] sem óvinir hans brigsluðu honum eftir því, sem síðar mun sagt verða. Þessi sveinn Alexander var í skóla settur, sem siðvenja er til ríkra manna utanlands að láta gera við börn sín. Meistari var honum fenginn sá, er Aristóteles hét. Hann var harla góður klerkur og hinn mesti spekingur að viti og er hann var tólf vetra gamall að aldri, nálega alroskinn að viti, en stórhugaður umfram alla sína jafnaldra, [...]

*aprinted inuncial.Uncials not encoded separately in Unicode as of this section's writing.

Old East Norse

TheRök runestoneinÖstergötland,Sweden, is the longest surviving source of early Old East Norse. It is inscribed on both sides.

Old East NorseorOld East Nordicbetween 800 and 1100 is calledRunic Swedishin Sweden andRunic Danishin Denmark, but for geographical rather than linguistic reasons. Any differences between the two were minute at best during the more ancient stages of this dialect group. Changes had a tendency to occur earlier in the Danish region. Even today many Old Danish changes have still not taken place in modern Swedish. Swedish is therefore the moreconservativeof the two in both the ancient and the modern languages, sometimes by a profound margin. The language is called "runic" because the body of text appears inrunes.

Runic Old East Norse is characteristically conservative in form, especially Swedish (which is still true for modern Swedish compared to Danish). In essence it matches or surpasses the conservatism of post-runic Old West Norse, which in turn is generally more conservative than post-runic Old East Norse. While typically "Eastern" in structure, many later post-runic changes and trademarks of OEN had yet to happen.

The phonemeʀ,which evolved during the Proto-Norse period fromz,was still clearly separated fromrin most positions, even when being geminated, while in OWN it had already merged withr.

TheProto-Germanicphoneme/w/was preserved in initial sounds in Old East Norse (w-), unlike in West Norse where it developed into/v/.It survived in ruralSwedish dialectsin the provinces of Westro- and North Bothnia,Skåne,Blekinge,Småland,Halland,Västergötlandand south ofBohusläninto the 18th, 19th and 20th century. It is still preserved in theDalecarlian dialectsin the province ofDalarna,Sweden, and inJutlandic dialectsin Denmark. The/w/-phoneme did also occur after consonants (kw-, tw-, sw- etc.) in Old East Norse and did so into modern times in said Swedish dialects and in a number of others. Generally, the initial w-sound developed into[v]in dialects earlier than after consonants where it survived much longer.

In summation, the/w/-sound survived in the East Nordic tongues almost a millennium longer than in the West Norse counterparts, and does still subsist at the present.

Monophthongization ofæi>ēandøy, au>ø̄started in mid-10th-century Denmark.Compare runic OEN:fæigʀ,gæiʀʀ,haugʀ,møydōmʀ,diūʀ;with Post-runic OEN:fēgher,gēr,hø̄gher,mø̄dōmber,diūr;OWN:feigr,geirr,haugr,meydómr,dýr;from PN*faigijaz,*gaizaz,*haugaz,*mawi-+dōmaz'maidendom; virginity',*diuza'(wild) animal'.

Feminine o-stems often preserve the plural ending-aʀ,while in OWN they more often merge with the feminine i-stems: (runic OEN)*sōlaʀ,*hafnaʀ,*hamnaʀ,*wāgaʀversus OWNsólir,hafnirandvágir(modern Swedishsolar,hamnar,vågar( "suns, havens, scales" ); Danish has mainly lost the distinction between the two stems, with both endings now being rendered as-eror-ealternatively for the o-stems).

Vice versa, masculine i-stems with the root ending in eithergorktended to shift the plural ending to that of the ja-stems while OEN kept the original:drængiaʀ,*ælgiaʀand*bænkiaʀversus OWNdrengir,elgir( "elks" ) andbekkir(modern Danishdrenge,elge,bænke,modern Swedishdrängar,älgar,bänkar).

The plural ending of ja-stems were mostly preserved while those of OWN often acquired that of the i-stems:*bæðiaʀ,*bækkiaʀ,*wæfiaʀversus OWNbeðir( "beds" ),bekkir,vefir(modern Swedishbäddar,bäckar,vävar).

Old Danish

Further information:History of Danish

Until the early 12th century, Old East Norse was very much a uniform dialect. It was in Denmark that the first innovations appeared that would differentiate Old Danish from Old Swedish (Bandle 2005,Old East Nordic,pp. 1856, 1859) as these innovations spread north unevenly (unlike the earlier changes that spread more evenly over the East Norse area), creating a series ofisoglossesgoing fromZealandtoSvealand.

In Old Danish,/hɾ/merged with/ɾ/during the 9th century.From the 11th to 14th centuries, the unstressed vowels -a,-oand -e(standard normalization-a,-uand -i) started to merge into -ə,represented with the letter⟨e⟩.This vowel came to beepenthetic,particularly before-ʀendings.At the same time, the voicelessstop consonantsp,tandkbecame voiced plosives and evenfricative consonants.Resulting from these innovations, Danish haskage(cake),tunger(tongues) andgæster(guests) whereas (Standard) Swedish has retained older forms,kaka,tungorandgäster(OENkaka,tungur,gæstir).

Moreover, the Danishpitch accentshared with Norwegian and Swedish changed intostødaround this time.

Old Swedish

Further information:Old Swedish

At the end of the 10th and early 11th century initialh-beforel,nandrwas still preserved in the middle and northern parts of Sweden, and is sporadically still preserved in some northern dialects asg-,e.g.gly(lukewarm), fromhlýʀ.TheDalecarlian dialectsdeveloped independently from Old Swedishand as such can be considered separate languages from Swedish.

Text example

This is an extract fromVästgötalagen,the Westrogothic law. It is the oldest text written as a manuscript found in Sweden and from the 13th century. It is contemporaneous with most of the Icelandic literature. The text marks the beginning ofOld Swedishas a distinct dialect.

Dræpær maþar svænskan man eller smalenskæn, innan konongsrikis man, eigh væstgøskan, bøte firi atta ørtogher ok þrettan markær ok ænga ætar bot. [...] Dræpar maþær danskan man allæ noræn man, bøte niv markum. Dræpær maþær vtlænskan man, eigh ma frid flyia or landi sinu oc j æth hans. Dræpær maþær vtlænskæn prest, bøte sva mykit firi sum hærlænskan man. Præstær skal i bondalaghum væræ. Varþær suþærman dræpin ællær ænskær maþær, ta skal bøta firi marchum fiurum þem sakinæ søkir, ok tvar marchar konongi.

If someone slays a Swede or a Smålander, a man from the kingdom, but not a West Geat, he will pay eight örtugar and thirteen marks, but no weregild. [...] If someone slays a Dane or a Norwegian, he will pay nine marks. If someone slays a foreigner, he shall not be banished and have to flee to his clan. If someone slays a foreign priest, he will pay as much as for a fellow countryman. A priest counts as a freeman. If a Southerner is slain or an Englishman, he shall pay four marks to the plaintiff and two marks to the king.

—Västgötalagen

Old Gutnish

Main article:Old Gutnish

Due toGotland's early isolation from the mainland, many features of Old Norse did not spread from or to the island, and Old Gutnish developed as an entirely separate branch from Old East and West Norse. For example, the diphthongaiinaigu,þairandwaitawas not subject toanticipatory assimilationtoeias in e.g. Old Icelandiceigu,þeirandveita.Gutnish also shows dropping of/w/in initial/wɾ/,which it shares with the Old West Norse dialects (except Old East Norwegian), but which is otherwise abnormal. Breaking was also particularly active in Old Gutnish, leading to e.g.bieraversus mainlandbera.

Text example

TheGuta lag'law of the Gutes'is the longest text surviving fromOld Gutnish.Appended to it is a short texting dealing with the history of the Gotlanders. This part relates to the agreement that the Gotlanders had with the Swedish king sometime before the 9th century:

So gingu gutar sielfs wiliandi vndir suia kunung þy at þair mattin frir Oc frelsir sykia suiariki j huerium staþ. vtan tull oc allar utgiftir. So aigu oc suiar sykia gutland firir vtan cornband ellar annur forbuþ. hegnan oc hielp sculdi kunungur gutum at waita. En þair wiþr þorftin. oc kallaþin. sendimen al oc kunungr oc ierl samulaiþ a gutnal þing senda. Oc latta þar taka scatt sinn. þair sendibuþar aighu friþ lysa gutum alla steþi til sykia yfir haf sum upsala kunungi til hoyrir. Oc so þair sum þan wegin aigu hinget sykia.

So, by their own will, the Gotlanders became the subjects of the Swedish king, so that they could travel freely and without risk to any location in the Swedish kingdom without toll and other fees. Likewise, the Swedes had the right to go to Gotland without corn restrictions or other prohibitions. The king was to provide protection and help, when they needed it and asked for it. The king and the jarl shall in return send emissaries to the GutnishAll-thingto receive the taxes. These emissaries shall declare free passage for the Gotlanders to all ports across the sea which belong to the king at Uppsala and likewise for everyone who want to travel to Gotland.

—Gutasaga,§Inträdet i Sverige

Relationship to other languages

Relationship to English

See also:History of English § Scandinavian influence,andList of English words of Old Norse origin

Old Englishand Old Norse were related languages. It is therefore not surprising that many words in Old Norse look familiar to English speakers; e.g.,armr(arm),fótr(foot),land(land),fullr(full),hanga(to hang),standa(to stand). This is because bothEnglishand Old Norse stem from aProto-Germanicmother language. In addition, numerous common, everyday Old Norse words were adopted into the Old English language during theViking Age.A few examples of Old Norseloanwordsin modern English are (English/Viking Age Old East Norse), in some cases even displacing their Old English cognates:

• Nouns–anger(angr),bag(baggi),bait(bæit,bæita,bæiti),band(band),bark(bǫrkʀ,stembark-),birth(byrðr),dirt(drit),dregs(dræggiaʀ),egg(ægg,related to OE. cognateægwhich became Middle Englisheye/eai),fellow(félagi),gap(gap),husband(húsbóndi),cake(kaka),keel(kiǫlʀ,stem alsokial-,kil-),kid(kið),knife(knífʀ),law(lǫg,stemlag-),leg(læggʀ),link(hlænkʀ),loan(lán,related to OE. cognatelæn,cf. lend),race(rǫs,stemrás-),root(rót,related to OE. cognatewyrt,cf.wort),sale(sala),scrap(skrap),seat(sæti),sister(systir,related to OE. cognatesweostor),skill(skial/skil),skin(skinn),skirt(skyrtavs. the native Englishshirtof the same root),sky(ský),slaughter(slátr),snare(snara),steak(stæik),thrift(þrift),tidings(tíðindi),trust(traust),window(vindauga),wing(væ(i)ngʀ)
• Verbs–are(er,displacing OEsind),blend(blanda),call(kalla),cast(kasta),clip(klippa),crawl(krafla),cut(possibly from ONkuta),die(døyia),gasp(gæispa),get(geta),give(gifa/gefa,related to OE. cognategiefan),glitter(glitra),hit(hitta),lift(lyfta),raise(ræisa),ransack(rannsaka),rid(ryðia),run(rinna,stemrinn-/rann-/runn-,related to OE. cognaterinnan),scare(skirra),scrape(skrapa),seem(søma),sprint(sprinta),take(taka),thrive(þrífa(s)),thrust(þrysta),want(vanta)
• Adjectives–flat(flatr),happy(happ),ill(illr),likely(líklígʀ),loose(lauss),low(lágʀ),meek(miúkʀ),odd(odda),rotten(rotinn/rutinn),scant(skamt),sly(sløgʀ),weak(væikʀ),wrong(vrangʀ)
• Adverbs–thwart/athwart(þvert)
• Prepositions–till(til),fro(frá)
• Conjunction– though/tho (þó)
• Interjection–hail(hæill),wassail(ves hæill)
• Personal pronoun–they(þæiʀ),their(þæiʀa),them(þæim) (for which the Anglo-Saxons saidhíe,hiera,him)
• Prenominal adjectives–same(sam)

In a simple sentence like "They are both weak", the extent of the Old Norse loanwords becomes quite clear (Old East Norse with archaic pronunciation:Þæiʀ eʀu báðiʀ wæikiʀwhile Old Englishhíe syndon bégen (þá) wáce). The words "they" and "weak" are both borrowed from Old Norse, and the word "both" might also be a borrowing, though this is disputed (cf. Germanbeide).While the number of loanwords adopted from the Norse was not as numerous as that ofNorman FrenchorLatin,their depth and everyday nature make them a substantial and very important part of everyday English speech as they are part of the very core of the modern English vocabulary.

Tracing the origins of words like "bull" and "Thursday" is more difficult."Bull" may derive from either Old Englishbulaor Old Norsebuli,while "Thursday" may be a borrowing or simply derive from the Old EnglishÞunresdæg,which could have been influenced by the Old Norse cognate.The word "are" is from Old Englishearun/aron,which stems back to Proto-Germanic as well as the Old Norse cognates.

Relationship to modern Scandinavian languages

Development of Old Norse vowels to the modern Scandinavian languages

Old Norse	Modern Icelandic	Modern Faroese	Modern Swedish	Modern Danish	Examples
a⟨a⟩	a(ː)	a/ɛaː; ɛ⟨a⟩(+ng,nk)	a/ɑː⟨a⟩; ɔ/oː⟨å⟩(+ld,rd,ng)	⟨a⟩; ɔ/ɔː⟨å⟩(+rd)	ONland"land": Ic/Fa/Sw/Da/Noland; ONdagr"day": Ic/Fadagur,Sw/Da/Nodag; ONharðr"hard": Ic/Faharður,Sw/Dahård,Nohard; ONlangr"long": Ic/Falangur,Swlång,Da/Nolang
ja⟨ja⟩	ja(ː)	ja/jɛaː	(j)ɛ(ː)⟨(j)ä⟩	jɛ:⟨jæ⟩; jæ:⟨je⟩(+r)	ONhjalpa"to help": Ic/Fahjálpa,Swhjälpa,Dahjælpe,Nohjelpe,NNhjelpa; ONhjarta"heart": Ic/Fahjarta,Swhjärta,Da/NBhjerte,NNhjarta/hjarte
aː⟨á⟩	au(ː)	ɔ/ɔaː	ɔ/oː⟨å⟩	ɔ/ɒ:⟨å⟩	ONláta"to let": Ic/Faláta,Swlåta,Dalade,Nola
ɛː⟨æ⟩	ai(ː)	a/ɛaː	ɛ(ː)⟨ä⟩		ONmæla"to speak": Ic/Fa/NNmæla,Swmäla,Nomæle; ONsæll"happy": Icsæll,Fasælur,Swsäll,Da/Nosæl
e⟨e⟩	ɛ(ː)	ɛ/eː			ONmenn"men": Ic/Famenn,Swmän,Damænd,Nomenn; ONbera"to bear": Ic/Fabera,Swbära,Da/NBbære,NNbera/bere; ONvegr"way": Ic/Favegur,Swväg,Davej,Noveg/vei
eː⟨é⟩	jɛ(ː)	a/ɛaː⟨æ⟩			ONkné"knee": Ichné,Fa/Daknæ,Swknä,Nokne
i⟨i⟩	ɪ(ː)	ɪ/iː	ɪ/iː⟨i⟩	e⟨i⟩/ eː⟨e⟩	ONkinn"cheek": Ic/Fa/Nokinn,Sw/Dakind
iː⟨í⟩	i(ː)	ʊɪ(ː) ʊt͡ʃː⟨íggj⟩		⟨i⟩	ONtíð"time": Ic/Fatíð,Sw/Da/Notid
ɔ⟨ǫ⟩	ø>œ(ː)⟨ö⟩	œ/øː⟨ø⟩ ɔ/oː⟨o⟩	⟨a⟩; ⟨o⟩; ⟨ø⟩(+r); ⟨å⟩(+ld,rd,ng)		ONhǫnd"hand": Ichönd,Fahond,Sw/NNhand,Da/NBhånd; ONnǫs"nose": Icnös,Fanøs,Sw/NNnos,Danæse,NBnese,NNnase; ONǫrn"eagle": Ic/Swörn,Fa/Da/Noørn; ONsǫngr"song": Icsöngur,Fasongur,Swsång,Da/NBsang,NNsong
jɔ⟨jǫ⟩	jø>jœ(ː)⟨jö⟩	jœ/jøː⟨jø⟩	(j)œ/(j)øː⟨(j)ö⟩		ONskjǫldr"shield": Icskjöldur,Faskjøldur,Swsköld,Da/Noskjold; ONbjǫrn"bear": Ic/Swbjörn,Fa/Da/NNbjørn
ɔː⟨ǫ́⟩	aː>au(ː)⟨á⟩	ɔ/ɔaː⟨á⟩,œ/ɔuː⟨ó⟩	ɔ/oː⟨å⟩	⟨å⟩	ONtá(*tǫ́) "toe": Ic/Fatá,Sw/Da/Notå
o⟨o⟩	ɔ(ː)	ɔ/oː	ɔ/oː⟨o⟩		ONmorginn/morgunn"morning": Icmorgunn,Famorgun,Sw/NNmorgon,Da/NBmorgen
oː⟨ó⟩	ou(ː)	œ/ɔuː ɛkv⟨ógv⟩	ʊ/uː⟨o⟩	⟨o⟩	ONbók"book": Ic/Fabók,Sw/Nobok,Dabog
u⟨u⟩	ʏ(ː)	ʊ/uː	ɵ/ʉː⟨u⟩		ONfullr"full": Ic/Fafullur,Sw/Da/Nofull
uː⟨ú⟩	u(ː)	ʏ/ʉuː ɪkv⟨úgv⟩		⟨u⟩	ONhús"house": Ic/Fahús,Sw/Da/Nohus
joː⟨jó⟩	jou(ː)	jœ/jɔuː (j)ɛkv⟨(j)ógv⟩	jɵ/jʉː⟨ju⟩	⟨y⟩	ONbjóða"to offer, command": Ic/Fabjóða,Swbjuda,Da/Nobyde,NNbyda,Noby
juː⟨jú⟩	ju(ː)	jʏ/jʉuː (j)ɪkv⟨(j)úgv⟩			ONdjúpr"deep": Ic/Fadjúpur,Sw/Nodjup,Dadyb,NBdyp
ø⟨ø⟩	ø>œ(ː)⟨ö⟩	œ/øː⟨ø⟩	œ/øː⟨ö⟩		ONgøra"to prepare": Swgöra
øː⟨œ⟩	ɛː>ai(ː)⟨æ⟩			⟨ø⟩	ONgrœnn"green": Icgrænn,Fagrønur,Swgrön,Da/NNgrøn,Nogrønn
y⟨y⟩	ɪ(ː)	ɪ/iː	⟨ö⟩; ⟨y⟩		ONdyrr"door": Ic/Fadyr,Swdörr,Da/Nodør ONfylla"to fill": Ic/Fa/NN/Swfylla,Dafylde,Nofylle
yː⟨ý⟩	i(ː)	ʊɪ(ː) ʊt͡ʃː⟨ýggj⟩	ʏ/yː⟨y⟩	⟨y⟩	ONdýrr"dear": Icdýr,Fadýrur,Sw/Da/Nodyr
ɛi⟨ei⟩	ei(ː)	aɪ(ː) at͡ʃː⟨eiggj⟩	e(ː)⟨e⟩	⟨e⟩	ONsteinn"stone": Icsteinn,Fasteinur,Sw/Da/NBsten,Nostein
œy⟨ey⟩	ei(ː)	ɔɪ(ː)⟨oy⟩ ɔt͡ʃː⟨oyggj⟩	œ/øː⟨ö⟩	⟨ø⟩	ONey"island": Icey,Faoyggj,Swö,Daø,Noøy
ɔu⟨au⟩	øy(ː)	ɛ/ɛɪː⟨ey⟩ ɛt͡ʃː⟨eyggj⟩			ONdraumr"dream": Icdraumur,Fadreymur,Swdröm,Da/NBdrøm,NNdraum

Pronunciation of vowels in various Scandinavian languages

Spelling	Old Norse	Modern Icelandic	Modern Faroese	Modern Swedish	Modern Norwegian
⟨a⟩	a	a(ː)	a/ɛaː	a/ɑː	ɑ(ː)
⟨á⟩	aː	au(ː)	ɔ/ɔaː	–
⟨ä⟩	–			ɛ/ɛː	–
⟨å⟩				ɔ/oː
⟨æ⟩	ɛː	ai(ː)	a/ɛaː	–	æ(ː),ɛ/eː
⟨e⟩	e	ɛ(ː)	ɛ/eː	e/eː	ɛ/eː,ə,æ(ː)
⟨é⟩	eː	jɛ(ː)	–
⟨i⟩	i	ɪ(ː)	ɪ/iː
⟨í⟩	iː	i(ː)	ʊɪ(ː)	–
⟨o⟩	o	ɔ(ː)	ɔ/oː	ʊ/uː,ɔ/oː	uː,ɔ/oː
⟨ó⟩	oː	ou(ː)	œ/ɔuː	–
⟨ǫ⟩	ɔ	–
⟨ǫ́⟩	ɔː
⟨ö⟩	–	ø > œ(ː)	–	œ/øː	–
⟨ø⟩	ø	–	œ/øː	–	œ/øː
⟨œ⟩	øː	–
⟨u⟩	u	ʏ(ː)	ʊ/uː	ɵ/ʉː	ʉ(ː)
⟨ú⟩	uː	u(ː)	ʏ/ʉuː	–
⟨y⟩	y	ɪ(ː)	ɪ/iː	ʏ/yː
⟨ý⟩	yː	i(ː)	ʊɪ(ː)	–
⟨ei⟩	ɛi	ei(ː)	aɪ(ː)	–	æɪ
⟨ey⟩	œy	ei(ː)	ɛ/ɛɪː	–
⟨oy⟩	–		ɔɪ(ː)	–
⟨øy⟩	–				œʏ
⟨au⟩	ɔu	øy(ː)	–		æʉ

See also

• Germanic a-mutation
• An Introduction to Old Norse– A common textbook on the language
• List of English words of Old Norse origin
• List of Old Norse exonyms– Names that speakers of Old Norse assigned to foreign places and peoples.
• Old Norse morphology– The grammar of the language.
• Old Norse orthography– The spelling of the language
• Old Norse poetry
• Proto-Norse language– The Scandinavian dialect of Proto-Germanic that developed into Old Norse

Dialectal information

• Greenlandic Norse
• History of Danish
• History of Icelandic
• Old Gutnish
• Old Norwegian
• Old Swedish

Sources

General sources

• Harbert, Wayne (2007), "The Germanic Languages",Cambridge Language Surveys,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
• Haugan, Jens (1998), "Right Dislocated 'Subjects' in Old Norse",Working Papers in Scandinavian Syntax,no. 62, pp. 37–60
• Haugen, Einar(1950), "First Grammatical Treatise. The Earliest Germanic Phonology",Language,26(4): 4–64,doi:10.2307/522272,JSTOR522272
• Haugen, Odd Einar,ed. (2008) [2004],The Menota handbook: Guidelines for the electronic encoding of Medieval Nordic primary sources(Version 2.0 ed.), Bergen: Medieval Nordic Text Archive,ISBN978-82-8088-400-8,archivedfrom the original on 24 May 2020,retrieved4 September2018,"The Menota handbook 2.0"
• Lass, Roger (1993),Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
• Adams, Charles Kendall,ed. (1899) [1876],Johnson's Universal Cyclopedia: A New Edition,vol. 7 (Raleigh-Tananarivo), D. Appleton, A. J. Johnson
• van der Auwera, J.; König, E., eds. (1994),The Germanic Languages
• Moberg, J.; Gooskens, C.; Nerbonne, J.; Vaillette, N. (2007), "4. Conditional Entropy Measures Intelligibility among Related Languages",Proceedings of the 17th Meeting of Computational Linguistics in the Netherlands,vol. 7 (LOT Occasional series), pp. 51–66,hdl:1874/296747
• Bandle, Oskar; Braunmüller, Kurt; Jahr, Ernst Hakon; Karker, Allan; Naumann, Hans-Peter; Teleman, Ulf; Elmevik, Lennart; Widmark, Gun, eds. (2002),The Nordic Languages, An International Handbook on the History of the North Germanic Languages,Walter de Gruyter, Berlin
  • Volume 2,2005
• O'Donoghue, Heather (2004),Old Norse-Icelandic Literature: A Short Introduction,Blackwell Introductions to Literature, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
• Torp, Arne;Vikør, Lars S(2014) [1993],Hovuddrag i norsk språkhistorie[The main features of Norwegian language history] (in Norwegian) (4th ed.), Gyldendal Norsk Forlag,ISBN978-8205464025

Dictionaries

• Cleasby, Richard;Vigfússon, Guðbrandur(1874),An Icelandic-English Dictionary,Oxford: Clarendon Press
  • e-textArchived20 July 2021 at theWayback Machinevia the Germanic Lexicon Project (germanic-lexicon-project.org)
  • e-textArchived17 April 2023 at theWayback Machineadapted from the Germanic Lexicon Project version to work better with mobile devices and with an improved search (old-norse.net)
• Zoëga, G. T. (1896),Íslenzk-Ensk orðabók,S. Kristjánsson
  • Íslenzk-Ensk orðabók,Reykjavík, Kostnaarmaur: Sigurdur Kristjánsson, 1922
• Zoëga, G. T. (1910),A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic
  • scanned documentArchived11 February 2021 at theWayback Machinevia "Germanic Lexicon Project" (lexicon.ff.cuni.cz)
  • e-textArchived1 January 2022 at theWayback Machinevianorroen.info
• ONP: Dictionary of Old Norse Prose(in Danish and English), University of Copenhagen,archivedfrom the original on 18 December 2019,retrieved6 August2021
• de Vries, Jan(1977) [1961],Altnordisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch
• Egilsson, Sveinbjorn,ed. (1854),Lexicon poeticum antiquæ linguæ septentrionalis(in Danish and Latin), Hafniæ, typis J. D. Qvist & comp
• Egilsson, Sveinbjorn;Jónsson, Finnur,eds. (1931) [1913–1916],Lexicon poeticum antiquæ linguæ septentrionalis(2nd ed.)
  • First and Second editionsArchived19 April 2021 at theWayback Machineviaseptentrionalia.net

Grammars

• Bayldon, George (1870),An Elementary Grammar of the Old Norse or Icelandic Language,London: Williams and Norgate
• Vigfússon, Gudbrand;Powell, F. York(1879),An Icelandic Prose Reader: with Notes, Grammar, and Glossary,Oxford Clarendon Press
• Noreen, Adolf(1923),Altnordische grammatik I. Altisländische und altnorwegische grammatik (laut- und flexionslehre)(4th ed.), Halle (Saale): Max Niemeyer,archivedfrom the original on 24 October 2021,retrieved9 June2020(Old West Norse)
• Noreen, Adolf (1904),Altnordische grammatik II. Altschwedische grammatik mit einschluss des altgutnischen,Halle: Max Niemeyer(Old SwedishandOld Gutnish)
• Brøndum-Nielsen, Johannes (1928–1974),Gammeldansk Grammatik i sproghistorisk Fremstilling(8 volumes),København: J. H. Schultz(Old Danish)
• Iversen, Ragnvald(1972).Norrøn grammatikk(7th ed.). Oslo: Aschehoug.(Old West Norse)
• Faarlund, Jan Terje(2004),The Syntax of Old Norse,New York: Oxford University Press(Old Norsein the narrow sense, i.e.Old West Norse)
• Haugen, Odd Einar(2006),Grunnbok i norrønt språk(3rd, revised printing of the 4th ed.), Gyldendal Akademisk(Old West Norse)
• Haugen, Odd Einar (2015),Norröne Grammatik im Überblick(2nd ed.), Universität Bergen,archivedfrom the original on 24 October 2021,retrieved10 June2021(Old West Norse)

Old Norse texts

• Aronsson, Lars,ed. (1997),"Gutasagan",Project Runeberg(in Old Norse),archivedfrom the original on 12 November 2020,retrieved16 May2007
  • Tunstall, Peter (ed.),Gutarnas Krönika eller Gutasagan [The History of the Gotlanders](in Old Norse and English),archivedfrom the original on 10 November 2011,retrieved17 July2011,facing translation

Language learning resources

• Barnes, Michael; Faulkes, Anthony (2007-2011),A New Introduction to Old Norse.Part I - Grammar.Part II - Reader.Part III - Glossary.Viking Society for Northern Research. University College London. Available atthe Viking Society for Northern Research homepage.
• Byock, Jesse(2013),Viking Language: Learn Old Norse, Runes, and Icelandic Sagas,Jules William Press,ISBN978-1-4802-1644-0
• Gordon, Eric V.;Taylor, A. R. (1981),An Introduction to Old Norse,Oxford: Clarendon Press,ISBN978-0-19-811184-9
• Sweet, Henry(1895),An Icelandic Primer, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary(2nd ed.), Univerzita Karlova
  • alt sourceArchived24 February 2021 at theWayback Machinevia Germanic Lexicon Project (lexicon.ff.cuni.cz)
  • e-extArchived26 October 2021 at theWayback MachineviaProject Gutenberg
• Þorgeirsson, Haukur; Guðlaugsson, Óskar,Old Norse for Beginners,archived fromthe originalon 23 January 2017,retrieved4 September2018

• Valfells, Sigrid; Caithey, James E. (1982),Old Icelandic: An Introductory Course.Oxford University Press.

External links

• Heimskringla.no,an online collection of Old Norse source material
• Old Norse Onlineby Todd B. Krause and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at theLinguistics Research Centerat theUniversity of Texas at Austin
• Video: Old Norse text read with a reconstructed pronunciation and a Modern Icelandic pronunciation, for comparison. With subtitles
• Old Norse sound samples forearly Old Norseand13th century Norwegian Old NorsebyArne Torp
• Old Norse sound sampleby Haukur Þorgeirsson (archived from theoriginal)
• Old Norse loans in Old and Middle English, and their legacy in the dialects of England and modern standard English
• Old Norse basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database