Ostrinia furnacalis
| Ostrinia furnacalis | |
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Scientific classification
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Crambidae |
| Genus: | Ostrinia |
| Species: | O. furnacalis
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| Binomial name | |
| Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée,1854)
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| Distribution ofOstrinia furnacalis | |
| Synonyms | |
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Ostrinia furnacalisis a species ofmothin the familyCrambidae,the grass moths. It wasdescribedbyAchille Guenéein 1854 and is known by the common nameAsian corn borersince this species is found in Asia and feeds mainly on corn crop. The moth is found fromChinatoAustralia,including in Java, Sulawesi, the Philippines, Borneo, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Micronesia. The Asian corn borer is part of thespecies complex,Ostrinia,in which members are difficult to distinguish based on appearance. OtherOstriniasuch asO. orientalis,O. scapulalis,O. zealis,andO. zaguliaevican occur withO. furnacalis,and the taxa can be hard to tell apart.[1]
This moth exhibits unique acousticmimicryof a predator by mirroring theecholocationcalls of bats in order to temporarily paralyze female moths and make it easier to mate.[2]It is also well known as being anagricultural peston several crops in the western Pacific region of Asia, especially oncorn.[3]The Asian corn borer is second only to maizedowny mildewas the most prevalent corn pest.[4]There is currently extensive research on eradicating this pest from corn crop in Asia, including the use ofbiological agentsandtoxins.
Geographic range and habitat
[edit]The Asian corn borer is most commonly found throughoutAsiaandSoutheast Asia.More specifically, it is located in China, the Philippines, Indonesia, Taiwan, Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Lao, Myanmar, and Cambodia.[5]There are also a limited number in the Solomon Islands, Africa, and parts of Australia.[6]The Asian corn borer thrives intropicalregions because in these countries there is continuous farming of its host crop through the year.
Food resources
[edit]While the main food source for the Asian corn borer iscorn,it also consumes and destroys bell pepper, cotton, hops,millet,pearl millet, foxtail millet, sugarcane,sorghum,and ginger. In addition, it can be found on a number of wild plants, as well, such as wormwoods,Job's tears,knotweeds, wild sugarcane,Johnson grass,andpara grass.[6]
Larvae and pupae
[edit]The larvae work their way through the host plant (typically maize), by beginning to feed on the underside, orwhorl,of the leaves. Youngerinstarstypically feed on the tassel of the plant, and then move on to feed in the ear. There they feed on the silk andkernelsof the corn plant. Later instar stages begin to make their way into the plant by feeding onstalks.This allows them to be able to formpupaewithin the stems of the plant.[7]Additionally, if the food supply of the current plant is limited, the larvae createsilkthat serves as a connection between plants so that they can travel from plant to plant. They are then transported by the wind through a process known asballooning,where the strands catch the wind in order to transport the larvae. They also use existing silk strand connections to other plants as trails where they can hope to find a better food source that can also serve them as a location for pupation.[8]
Life cycle
[edit]Eggs
[edit]
The eggs of the Asian corn borer are found grouped at the base of and under the leaves of corn plants in masses of 25 to 50 eggs.[9]They appear scaly and are laid in overlapping groups, resembling roof tiles and fish scales.[5]The eggs are approximately half a millimeter long and white, turning black before emergence, which occurs 3 to 10 days afterincubation.[6]
Larvae
[edit]
The Asian corn borer goes through sixinstarstages while in thelarvalphase.[5]The first-instar larva is pinkish with dark spots and a dark head. The late instar larva is yellow brown with dark spots and reaches up to 2.9 centimeters in length.[6]
Pupa
[edit]After 3 to 4 weeks, thecaterpillarlarvae transform intopupaefor 6 to 9 days in acocoonin the soil or stem of the plant, before becomingmoths.[9]
Adult
[edit]The adult moths have distinct color pattern for each sex which makes them easy to identify. The females are pale yellow or tan with darker wavy bands across their wings. Females also tend to be larger than males with a wingspan of 20–30 mm. Meanwhile, males are darker with a taperingabdomenand similar bands across their wings and tend to be slightly smaller in size than the females.[6][9]The adult moths live for 10 to 24 days. During this lifetime, female moths can lay up to 1500 eggs.[5]
Parasites
[edit]Natural enemies of the moth include several parasites such as thetachinidflyLydella grisescens,thebraconidwaspMacrocentrus cingulum,and theichneumonwaspEriborus terebrans.It is also susceptible to theentomopathogenic fungiBeauveria bassianaandNosema furnacalis.Additionally, the Asian corn borer has the potential to develop the insect diseasemuscardine.[10]
Mating
[edit]Mimicry
[edit]Duringcourtship,the male Asian corn borer produces an ultrasound call by rubbing scales on its wings against scales on itsthorax.Thisultrasoundcall acoustically mimics that of the batecholocationcall.[11]The males take advantage of this predator cue in order to seduce a mate via sensory trapping, which are signals that mimic those of a predator in order to exploit the adaptive, neural responses of signal receivers.[12][13]The female responds to this signal by becoming motionless, making it easier for males to mate since they are not effective atcopulating.This predator cue behavior is exhibited in several other species includingGoodeinaefish,swordtail characins,andwater mites.
Pheromones
[edit]This species has apheromonecommunication system used during mating. The females contain an extruding sex pheromone gland which releases the pheromone, composed of tetradecanl acetate (14Ac), (E)-12-tetradecenyl acetate (E12–14Ac) and (Z)-12-tetradecenyl acetate (Z12–14Ac).[14][15]This gland is composed of thick cell layers and is located between abdominal segments in the moth. In response to the female pheromones, males typically extrudehair-pencils,or pheromone signaling structures, prior to copulation, making it easier for the male to mate.[16]
Offspring ratios
[edit]This species has been known to have a skewedsex ratiooccurring at a low frequency. The skewed ratio is caused by a parasitic bacterial infection,Wolbachia,that feminizes the male offspring.[1]Many female moths produce mostly femaleoffspring,and some broods are entirely female. This is supported by evidence that the antibiotic application oftetracycline,an agent that killsWolbachia,produces all-male offspring broods. Additionally, the female-biased sex ratio can be maternally inherited. While the skewed ratios have only been observed in three populations inJapan,this phenomenon is not unheard of. In other taxa such as wasps and various crustaceans, infection withWolbachiacan skew sex ratios.
Physiology
[edit]Flight
[edit]The adult moths are known for being strong,nocturnalfliers, and can fly up to several miles in a single night. Reasons for these long flights are speculated to be because of mating, since there is a negative correlation between flight duration and egg production.[17]Lower humidity conditions inhibit the flight ability of the adult.[9]
Antenna
[edit]The Asian corn borer has importantreceptorson theirantennaethat enable the moth to detectolfactorycues for mate attraction andoviposition.Males show strong activity of their antennae to the chemicals released by females.[18]Each antenna on both sexes also has six types ofsensilla.These include chemical receptors, mechanical receptors, temperature receptors, and hygroreceptors.[19]
Diapause
[edit]Diapauseis the delayed development of an insect due to unfavorable environmental conditions.Ostrinia furnacalisis known to typically diapause over winter months. During diapause, it has been observed that the oxygen levels of the moth are relatively stable and remain at a high level. However, this is not the case withglycerollevels. Though glycerol levels are low in October and November, they markedly increase during December and January. In other words, glycerol levels, which are associated with survival rates, increase with increasing temperature. This is considered a form of cold weather resistance for the moth.[20]
Human interaction
[edit]Agriculture
[edit]This insect can cause devastating losses in acornfield. In thePhilippineslosses of 20 to 80% have been reported. InTaiwanit has reached 95%, and in theMarianas,100%.[4]The mothlarvadoes most of the damage by feeding on almost all parts of the plant. It destroys the fruit when it bores into the ear to feed on the silk andkernels,and the stem when it creates a cocoon forpupation.It also invades the tassels, where it feeds on pollen.[10]
Control
[edit]Biological control
[edit]One method used to control the moth inAsiais the waspTrichogramma ostriniae,a nativeparasitoidof the moth's eggs. This method ofbiological pest controlhas shown varied success.[21]Several other species have been used as well includingTrichogramma dendrolimi,Trichogramma chilonalisin Guam, although it has been less effective, andTrichogramma evanescensin the Philippines. The earwig,Euborellia annulata,is also used for biological control of this pest.[22]Some bacteria that inhabit the gut ofentomopathogenic nematodes,specificallyXenorhabdusandPhotorhabdus,have the pathogenic potential to killOstrinia furnacaliswithin 48 hours.[23]Another method used to control the spread of this pest is to detassel the corn. This reduces the larval populations that feed on the tassels.[10]
Toxins
[edit]Like theEuropean corn borer,this moth is susceptible toBt corn,a crop which has beengenetically modifiedto produceBt toxinthat harms the moth. This corn has been introduced to thePhilippines,where it has been monitored to gather data on its relationship with the moth. It has been successful, producing higher yields than conventional corn breeds.Bt cottonhas also had some success inChina.[24]Another method of controlling the pest in cotton crops is to intercrop with corn, growing some corn plants in the cotton field. The mothoverwintersin corn plants instead of thecottonplants in order to relieve the cotton plants of their moth loads. Bt-based pesticides are available, and conventional chemicalpesticidesare used. Corn breeding is continuing in the search for varieties resistant to the moth.[10]
References
[edit]- ^abKageyama, D.; et al. (1998)."Female-biased sex ratio in the Asian corn borer,Ostrinia furnacalis:Evidence for the occurrence of feminizing bacteria in an insect ".Heredity.81(3): 311–316.doi:10.1046/j.1365-2540.1998.00391.x.
- ^Jacobs, David; Bastian, Anna.Predator–Prey Interactions: Co-evolution between Bats and Their Prey.Springer.
- ^Huang, Y.; et al. (1998). "Geographic variation in sex pheromone of Asian corn borer (Ostrinia furnacalis) in Japan ".Journal of Chemical Ecology.24(12): 2079.doi:10.1023/A:1020737726636.S2CID34621644.
- ^abNafus, D. M.; Schreiner, I. H. (1991). "Review of the biology and control of the Asian corn borer,Ostrinia furnacalis(Lep: Pyralidae) ".Tropical Pest Management.37(1): 41–56.doi:10.1080/09670879109371535.
- ^abcdTurner, Gabrielle; Bergvinson, David; Bishwanath, Das."Oriental corn borer (extended information)".maizedoctor.org.Archived fromthe originalon 3 October 2017.Retrieved3 October2017.
- ^abcdeGrahame, Jackson. "Ostrinia furnacalisCrop Protection Compendium ".CABI.
- ^Nafus, D.; Schreiner, I. (1987). "Location ofOstrinia furnacalis(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Eggs and Larvae on Sweet Corn in Relation to Plant Growth Stage ".Journal of Economic Entomology.80(2): 411–416.doi:10.1093/jee/80.2.411.
- ^Daniels, David. "Corn Commodity Survey".Ohio Department of Agriculture.
- ^abcdHill, Dennis (2008-07-16).Pests of Crops in Warmer Climates and Their Control.Springer, Dordrecht. p.428.ISBN978-1-4020-6738-9.
- ^abcd"Asian Corn Borer".Plantwise Knowledge Bank.Retrieved4 October2017.
- ^Nakano, R.; Takanashi, T.; Surlykke, A.; Skals, N.; Ishikawa, Y. (2013)."Evolution of deceptive and true courtship songs in moths".Scientific Reports.3:2003.Bibcode:2013NatSR...3E2003N.doi:10.1038/srep02003.PMC3687589.PMID23788180.
- ^Takanashi, Takuma; Nakano, Ryo; Surlykke, Annemarie; Tatsuta, Haruki; Tabata, Jun; Ishikawa, Yukio; Skals, Niels (2010)."Variation in courtship ultrasounds of threeOstriniamoths with different sex pheromones ".PLOS ONE.5(10): e13144.Bibcode:2010PLoSO...513144T.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013144.PMC2949388.PMID20957230.
- ^Edwards, David P.; Yu, Douglas W. (2007)."The roles of sensory traps in the origin, maintenance, and breakdown of mutualism".Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology.61(9): 1321–1327.doi:10.1007/s00265-007-0369-3.S2CID43863247.Retrieved2017-10-06.
- ^Cheng, Zhi-Qing; Xiao, Jin-Cheng; Huang, Xian-Ting; Chen, Deng-Long; Li, Jian-Quan; He, Yan-Sheng; Huang, Shang-Ren; Luo, Qing-Chang; Yang, Chao-Ming; Yang, Tsan-Hsi (1981). "Sex Pheromone Components Isolated from China Corn Borer,Ostrinia furnacalisGuenée (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), (E)- and (Z)- 12-Tetradecenyl Acetates ".Journal of Chemical Ecology.7(5): 841–851.doi:10.1007/bf00992382.PMID24420755.S2CID21427845.
- ^Boo, K.S.; Park, J.W. "Sex Pheromone Composition of the Asian Corn Borer Moth,Ostrinia furnacalis(Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in South Korea ".Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology.1:74–84.
- ^Park, Jae Woo; Boo, Kyung Saeng. "Calling Behavior and Sex Pheromone Gland of the Asian Corn Borer,Ostrinia furnacalis".Korean Journal of Applied Entomology.
- ^Shirai, Y (1998). "Laboratory evaluation of flight ability of the Oriental corn borer,Ostrinia furnacalis".Bulletin of Entomological Research.88(3): 327.doi:10.1017/s0007485300025943.
- ^Kuo, R.; Ho, H.; Yang, H.; Chow, Y.; Wu, H. (1992). "Investigation of sex pheromone components of female Asian corn borer,Ostrinia furnacalis(Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Taiwan ".Journal of Chemical Ecology.18(6): 833–840.doi:10.1007/bf00988323.PMID24254086.S2CID2306009.
- ^Jung, Cheon Hae; Park, Jae Woo; Boo, Kyung Saeng (1999). "Types of Antennal Sensilla of the Asian Corn Borer,Ostrinia furnacalis(Guenéee) [sic] ".Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology.2:51–60.doi:10.1016/s1226-8615(08)60031-x.
- ^Goto, Michiyo; Sekine, Yutaka; Outa, Hitoshi; Hujikura, Mikio; Koichi Suzuki (February 2001). "Relationships between cold hardiness and diapause, and between glycerol and free amino acid contents in overwintering larvae of the oriental corn borer,Ostrinia furnacalis".Journal of Insect Physiology.47(2): 157–165.doi:10.1016/S0022-1910(00)00099-8.PMID11064022.
- ^Shelton, A.Trichogramma ostriniae.Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America. Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University.
- ^Nakano, R.; et al. (2006)."Ultrasonic courtship song in the Asian corn borer moth,Ostrinia furnacalis "(PDF).Naturwissenschaften.93(6): 292–96.Bibcode:2006NW.....93..292N.doi:10.1007/s00114-006-0100-7.PMID16541234.S2CID25311680.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2014-04-07.Retrieved2013-06-01.
- ^Wang, H.; Dong, H.; Qian, H.; Cong, B. (2014). "Laboratory Assessment of Entomopathogenic Nematode Symbiotic Bacteria to Control Maize Pest,Ostrinia furnacalis,and Fungi Diseases,Bipolaris maydisandCurvularia lunata".Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology.17(4): 823–27.doi:10.1016/j.aspen.2014.08.002.
- ^Tan, S. Y., et al. (2011)."Comparative susceptibility ofOstrinia furnacalis,Ostrinia nubialis,andDiatraea saccharalis(Lepidoptera: Crambidae) toBacillus thuringiensisCry1 toxins ".Faculty Publications: Department of Entomology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Paper 332.