Jump to content

Oxytocin

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the hormone. For its use as a medication, seeOxytocin (medication).For the Billie Eilish song, seeOxytocin (song).
Not to be confused withOxycontin.
Oxytocin
Clinical data
Pronunciation/ˌɒksɪˈtoʊsɪn/
ATC code
Physiologicaldata
SourcetissuesPituitary gland
Target tissuesWide spread
ReceptorsOxytocin receptor
AntagonistsAtosiban
PrecursorOxytocin/neurophysin I prepropeptide
MetabolismLiver and otheroxytocinases
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokineticdata
Protein binding30%
MetabolismLiver and otheroxytocinases
Eliminationhalf-life1–6 min (IV)
~2 h (intranasal)[2][3]
ExcretionBiliary andkidney
Identifiers
  • 1-({(4R,7S,10S,13S,16S,19R)-19-amino-7-(2-amino-2-oxoethyl)-10-(3-amino-3-oxopropyl)-16-(4-hydroxybenzyl)-13-[(1S)-1-methylpropyl]-6,9,12,15,18-pentaoxo-1,2-dithia-5,8,11,14,17-pentaazacycloicosan-4-yl}carbonyl)-L-prolyl-L-leucylglycinamide
CAS Number
PubChemCID
IUPHAR/BPS
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
CompTox Dashboard(EPA)
ECHA InfoCard100.000.045Edit this at Wikidata
Chemical and physical data
FormulaC43H66N12O12S2
Molar mass1007.19g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
  • CC[C@H](C)[C@@H]1NC(=O)[C@H](Cc2ccc(O)cc2)NC(=O)[C@@H](N)CSSC[C@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC1=O)C(=O)N3CCC[C@H]3C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)NCC(N)=O
  • InChI=1S/C43H66N12O12S2/c1-5-22(4)35-42(66)49-26(12-13-32(45)57)38(62)51-29(17-33(46)58)39(63)53-30(20-69-68-19-25(44)36(60)50-28(40(64)54-35)16-23-8-10-24(56)11-9-23)43(67)55-14-6-7-31(55)41(65)52-27(15-21(2)3)37(61)48-18-34(47)59/h8-11,21-22,25-31,35,56H,5-7,12-20,44H2,1-4H3,(H2,45,57)(H2,46,58)(H2,47,59)(H,48,61)(H,49,66)(H,50,60)(H,51,62)(H,52,65)(H,53,63)(H,54,64)/t22-,25-,26-,27-,28-,29-,30-,31-,35-/m0/s1checkY
  • Key:XNOPRXBHLZRZKH-DSZYJQQASA-NcheckY
(verify)

Oxytocinis apeptide hormoneandneuropeptidenormally produced in thehypothalamusand released by theposterior pituitary.[4]Present in animals since early stages of evolution, in humans it plays roles in behavior that includesocial bonding,love,reproduction,childbirth,and theperiod after childbirth.[5][6][7][8]Oxytocin is released into the bloodstream as a hormone in response tosexual activityand during childbirth.[9][10]It is also available inpharmaceutical form.In either form, oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions to speed up the process of childbirth. In its natural form, it also plays a role inmaternal bondingandmilk production.[10][11]Production and secretion of oxytocin is controlled by apositive feedbackmechanism, where its initial release stimulates production and release of further oxytocin. For example, when oxytocin is released during a contraction of the uterus at the start of childbirth, this stimulates production and release of more oxytocin and an increase in the intensity and frequency of contractions. This process compounds in intensity and frequency and continues until the triggering activity ceases. A similar process takes place during lactation and during sexual activity.

Oxytocin is derived byenzymaticsplitting from thepeptide precursorencoded by the human OXTgene.The deduced structure of the active nonapeptide is:

Cys–Tyr–Ile–Gln–Asn– Cys –Pro–Leu–Gly– NH2,or CYIQNCPLG-NH2.

Etymology

[edit]

The term "oxytocin" derives from the Greek "ὠκυτόκος" (ōkutókos), based on ὀξύς (oxús), meaning "sharp" or "swift", and τόκος (tókos), meaning "childbirth".[12][13]The adjective form is "oxytocic", which refers to medicines which stimulate uterine contractions, to speed up the process of childbirth. Colloquially, it has been referred to as the "cuddle hormone" or the "moral molecule" which have been considered misnomers.[14]

History

[edit]

The uterine-contracting properties of the principle that would later be named oxytocin were discovered by British pharmacologistHenry Hallett Dalein 1906,[15][16]and its milk ejection property was described by Ott and Scott in 1910[17]and by Schafer and Mackenzie in 1911.[18]In 1909, the first clinical use of oxytocin was performed byWilliam Blair-Bellto induce childbirth in patients with complications.[19][20]

By the 1920s, oxytocin andvasopressinhad been isolated from pituitary tissue and given their current names. Oxytocin's molecular structure was determined in 1952.[21]In the early 1950s, American biochemistVincent du Vigneaudfound that oxytocin is made up of nine amino acids, and he identified its amino acid sequence, the first polypeptide hormone to be sequenced.[22]In 1953, du Vigneaud carried out the synthesis of oxytocin, the first polypeptide hormone to be synthesized.[23][24][25]Du Vigneaud was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1955 for his work.[26]

Further work on different synthetic routes for oxytocin, as well as the preparation of analogues of the hormone (e.g.4-deamido-oxytocin) was performed in the following decade byIphigenia Photaki.[27]

Biochemistry

[edit]
OXT
Identifiers
AliasesOXT,OT, OT-NPI, OXT-NPI, oxytocin/neurophysin I prepropeptide
External IDsOMIM:167050;MGI:97453;HomoloGene:55494;GeneCards:OXT;OMA:OXT - orthologs
Orthologs
SpeciesHumanMouse
Entrez

5020

18429

Ensembl

ENSG00000101405

ENSMUSG00000027301

UniProt

P01178

P35454

RefSeq (mRNA)

NM_000915

NM_011025

RefSeq (protein)

NP_000906

NP_035155

Location (UCSC)Chr 20: 3.07 – 3.07 MbChr 2: 130.42 – 130.42 Mb
PubMedsearch[30][31]
Wikidata
View/Edit HumanView/Edit Mouse

Estrogenhas been found to increase thesecretionof oxytocin and to increase theexpressionof itsreceptor,theoxytocin receptor,in thebrain.[32]In women, a single dose ofestradiolhas been found to be sufficient to increase circulating oxytocin concentrations.[33]

Biosynthesis

[edit]

Oxytocin and vasopressin are the only known hormones released by the human posterior pituitary gland to act at a distance. However, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, including corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and dynorphin, for example, that act locally. The magnocellular neurons that make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurons that make vasopressin, and are similar in many respects.

The biosynthesis of the different forms of OT
The biosynthesis of the different forms of OT

The oxytocinpeptideis synthesized as an inactive precursor protein from theOXTgene.[34][35][36]This precursor protein also includes the oxytocin carrier proteinneurophysin I.[37]The inactive precursor protein is progressivelyhydrolyzedinto smaller fragments (one of which is neurophysin I) via a series of enzymes. The last hydrolysis that releases the active oxytocin nonapeptide is catalyzed bypeptidylglycine Alpha -amidating monooxygenase(PAM).[38]

The activity of the PAM enzyme system is dependent uponvitamin C(ascorbate), which is a necessary vitamin cofactor. By chance, sodium ascorbate by itself was found to stimulate the production of oxytocin from ovarian tissue over a range of concentrations in a dose-dependent manner.[39]Many of the same tissues (e.g.ovaries, testes, eyes, adrenals, placenta, thymus, pancreas) where PAM (and oxytocin by default) is found are also known to store higher concentrations of vitamin C.[40]

Oxytocin is known to be metabolized by theoxytocinase,leucyl/cystinyl aminopeptidase.[41][42]Other oxytocinases are also known to exist.[41][43]Amastatin,bestatin(ubenimex),leupeptin,andpuromycinhave been found to inhibit the enzymatic degradation of oxytocin, though they also inhibit the degradation of various other peptides, such asvasopressin,met-enkephalin,anddynorphin A.[43][44][45][46]

Neural sources

[edit]

In thehypothalamus,oxytocin is made inmagnocellular neurosecretory cellsof thesupraopticandparaventricularnuclei,[47]and is stored inHerring bodiesat the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary. It is then released into the blood from theposterior lobe(neurohypophysis) of thepituitary gland.Theseaxons(likely, butdendriteshave not been ruled out) have collaterals that innervate neurons in thenucleus accumbens,a brain structure where oxytocin receptors are expressed.[48]Theendocrineeffects of hormonal oxytocin and the cognitive or behavioral effects of oxytocinneuropeptidesare thought to be coordinated through its common release through these collaterals.[48]Oxytocin is also produced by some neurons in the paraventricular nucleus that project to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord.[49]Depending on the species, oxytocin receptor-expressing cells are located in other areas, including theamygdalaandbed nucleus of the stria terminalis.

In the pituitary gland, oxytocin is packaged in large, dense-core vesicles, where it is bound toneurophysin Ias shown in the inset of the figure; neurophysin is a largepeptidefragment of the larger precursorproteinmolecule from which oxytocin is derived byenzymaticcleavage.

Secretion of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve endings is regulated by the electrical activity of the oxytocin cells in the hypothalamus. These cells generateaction potentialsthat propagate downaxonsto the nerve endings in the pituitary; the endings contain large numbers of oxytocin-containing vesicles, which are released byexocytosiswhen the nerve terminals are depolarised.

Non-neural sources

[edit]

Endogenous oxytocin concentrations in the brain have been found to be as much as 1000-fold higher than peripheral levels.[50]

Outside the brain, oxytocin-containing cells have been identified in several diverse tissues, including in females in thecorpus luteum[51][52]and the placenta;[53]in males in the testicles'interstitial cells of Leydig;[54]and in both sexes in the retina,[55]the adrenal medulla,[56]the thymus[57]and the pancreas.[58]The finding of significant amounts of this classically "neurohypophysial"hormone outside the central nervous system raises many questions regarding its possible importance in these diverse tissues.

Male

[edit]

TheLeydig cellsin some species have been shown to possess the biosynthetic machinery to manufacture testicular oxytocinde novo,to be specific, in rats (which can synthesize vitamin C endogenously), and in guinea pigs, which, like humans, require anexogenoussource of vitamin C (ascorbate) in their diets.[59]

Female

[edit]

Oxytocin is synthesized bycorpora luteaof several species, including ruminants and primates. Along with estrogen, it is involved in inducing the endometrial synthesis ofprostaglandin F2αto cause regression of the corpus luteum.[60]

Evolution

[edit]

Virtually allvertebrateshave an oxytocin-likenonapeptidehormone that supports reproductive functions and a vasopressin-like nonapeptide hormone involved in water regulation. The two genes are usually located close to each other (less than 15,000 bases apart) on the samechromosome,and are transcribed in opposite directions (however, infugu,[61]the homologs are further apart and transcribed in the same direction). The two genes are believed to result from agene duplicationevent; the ancestral gene is estimated to be about 500 million years old and is found incyclostomata(modern members of theAgnatha).[62]

A 2023 study found thatzebrafishutilize oxytocin in reaction to the fear of other fish. It found that zebrafish that have had oxytocin production removed bygene editingcannot respond to the fear of other fish. When oxytocin is injected back into the fish, they react again in a way that suggests they may have empathy in regards to this emotion. Furthermore, because the same regions of the brain are involved as in mammals, the study suggests oxytocin-based empathy may have evolved from a common ancestor many millions of years ago.[63]

Biological function

[edit]

Oxytocin has peripheral (hormonal) actions, and also has actions in the brain. Its actions are mediated by specificoxytocin receptors.The oxytocin receptor is aG-protein-coupled receptor,OT-R, which requiresmagnesiumandcholesteroland is expressed inmyometrial cells.[64]It belongs to therhodopsin-type(class I) group of G-protein-coupled receptors.[62]

Studies have looked at oxytocin's role in various behaviors, includingorgasm,social recognition,pair bonding,anxiety,in-groupbias,situational lack ofhonesty,autism,and maternal behaviors.[16]Oxytocin is believed to have a significant role in social learning. There are indicators that oxytocin may help to decrease noise in the brain's auditory system, increase perception of social cues and support more targeted social behavior. It may also enhance reward responses. However, its effects may be influenced by context, such as the presence of familiar or unfamiliar individuals.[65][66]

Physiological

[edit]

Theperipheralactions of oxytocin mainly reflect secretion from thepituitary gland.The behavioral effects of oxytocin are thought to reflect release from centrally projecting oxytocin neurons, different from those that project to the pituitary gland, or that are collaterals from them.[48]Oxytocin receptors are expressed by neurons in many parts of the brain and spinal cord, including theamygdala,ventromedial hypothalamus,septum,nucleus accumbens,andbrainstem,although the distribution differs markedly between species.[62]Furthermore, the distribution of these receptors changes during development and has been observed to change afterparturitionin themontane vole.[62]

  • Milk ejection reflex/Letdown reflex: inlactating(breastfeeding) mothers, oxytocin acts at themammary glands,causing milk to be 'let down' intolactiferous ducts,from where it can be excreted via thenipple.[67]Suckling by theinfantat thenippleis relayed byspinal nervesto thehypothalamus.Thestimulationcausesneuronsthat make oxytocin to fire action potentials in intermittent bursts; these bursts result in the secretion of pulses of oxytocin from the neurosecretorynerve terminalsof the pituitary gland.
  • Uterine contraction:important forcervical dilationbefore birth, oxytocin causes contractions during the second and third stages oflabor.[68]Oxytocin release duringbreastfeedingcauses mild but often painfulcontractionsduring the first few weeks of lactation. This also serves to assist the uterus in clotting the placental attachment point postpartum. However, inknockout micelacking the oxytocin receptor, reproductivebehaviorandparturitionare normal.[69]
  • In male rats, oxytocin may induceerections.[70]A burst of oxytocin is released during ejaculation in several species, including human males; its suggested function is to stimulate contractions of the reproductive tract, aidingspermrelease.[70]
  • Human sexual response:Oxytocin levels inplasmarise during sexual stimulation and orgasm. At least two uncontrolled studies have found increases in plasma oxytocin at orgasm – in both men and women.[71][72]Plasma oxytocin levels are increased around the time of self-stimulated orgasm and are still higher than baseline when measured five minutes after self arousal.[71]The authors of one of these studies speculated that oxytocin's effects on muscle contractibility may facilitate sperm and egg transport.[71]
In a study measuring oxytocin serum levels in women before and aftersexual stimulation,the author suggests it serves an important role insexual arousal.This study found genital tract stimulation resulted in increased oxytocin immediately after orgasm.[73]Another study reported increases of oxytocin during sexual arousal could be in response to nipple/areola, genital, and/or genital tract stimulation as confirmed in other mammals.[74]Murphy et al. (1987), studying men, found that plasma oxytocin levels remain unchanged during sexual arousal, but that levels increase sharply after ejaculation, returning to baseline levels within 30 minutes. In contrast,vasopressinwas increased during arousal but returned to baseline at the time of ejaculation. The study concludes that (in males) vasopressin is secreted during arousal, while oxytocin is only secreted after ejaculation.[75]A more recent study of men found an increase in plasma oxytocin immediately after orgasm, but only in a portion of their sample that did not reach statistical significance. The authors noted these changes "may simply reflect contractile properties on reproductive tissue".[76]
  • Due to its similarity tovasopressin,it can reduce the excretion ofurineslightly, and so it can be classified as anantidiuretic.In several species, oxytocin can stimulate sodium excretion from the kidneys (natriuresis), and, in humans, high doses can result in low sodium levels (hyponatremia).
  • Cardiac effects: oxytocin and oxytocin receptors are also found in theheartin some rodents, and the hormone may play a role in the embryonal development of the heart by promotingcardiomyocytedifferentiation.[77][78]However, the absence of either oxytocin or its receptor in knockout mice has not been reported to produce cardiac insufficiencies.[69]
  • Modulation ofhypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axisactivity: oxytocin, under certain circumstances, indirectly inhibits release ofadrenocorticotropic hormoneandcortisoland, in those situations, may be considered an antagonist of vasopressin.[79]
  • Preparing fetal neurons for delivery (in rats): crossing the placenta, maternal oxytocin reaches the fetal brain and induces a switch in the action of neurotransmitterGABAfrom excitatory to inhibitory on fetal cortical neurons. This silences the fetal brain for the period of delivery and reduces its vulnerability tohypoxic damage.[80]
  • Feeding: a 2012 paper suggested that oxytocin neurons in the para-ventricular hypothalamus in the brain may play a key role in suppressing appetite under normal conditions and that other hypothalamic neurons may trigger eating via inhibition of these oxytocin neurons. This population of oxytocin neurons is absent inPrader-Willi syndrome,a genetic disorder that leads to uncontrollable feeding and obesity, and may play a key role in its pathophysiology.[81]Research on the oxytocin-related neuropeptide asterotocin instarfishalso showed that in echinoderms, the chemical induces muscle relaxation, and in starfish specifically caused the organisms to evert their stomach and react as though feeding on prey, even when none were present.[82]

Psychological

[edit]
  • Autism: Oxytocin has been implicated in the etiology of autism, with one report suggesting autism is correlated to a mutation on the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR). Studies involving Caucasian, Finnish and Chinese Han families provide support for the relationship ofOXTRwith autism.[83][84]Autism may also be associated with an aberrant methylation ofOXTR.[83]
  • Protection of brain functions: Studies in rats have demonstrated that nasal application of oxytocin can alleviate impaired learning capabilities caused by restrained stress. The authors attributed this effect to an improved hippocampal response in Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) being observed.[85]Accordingly, oxytocin has been shown to promote neural growth in the hippocampus in rats even during swim stress or glucocorticoid administration.[86]In a mouse model of early onset of Alzheimer's, the administration of oxytocin by a gel particularly designed to make the peptide accessible for the brain, the cognitive decline and hippocampal atrophy of these mice were delayed. Moreover, the amyloid β-protein deposit and nerve cell apoptosis were retarded. An observed inhibitory impact by oxytocin on the inflammatory activity of the microglia was proposed to be an important factor.[87]

Bonding

[edit]

In theprairie vole,oxytocin released into the brain of the female during sexual activity is important for forming a pair bond with her sexual partner.Vasopressinappears to have a similar effect in males.[88]Oxytocin has a role in social behaviors in many species, so it likely also does in humans. In a 2003 study, both humans and dog oxytocin levels in the blood rose after a five to 24 minute petting session. This possibly plays a role in theemotional bonding between humans and dogs.[89]

  • Maternal behavior:Female rats given oxytocinantagonistsafter giving birth do not exhibit typical maternal behavior.[90]By contrast, virgin female sheep show maternal behavior toward foreign lambs uponcerebrospinal fluidinfusion of oxytocin, which they would not do otherwise.[91]Oxytocin is involved in the initiation of human maternal behavior, not its maintenance; for example, it is higher in mothers after they interact with unfamiliar children rather than their own.[92]
  • Humaningroupbonding: Oxytocin can increase positive attitudes, such as bonding, toward individuals classified as "in-group" members, whereas other individuals become classified as "out-group" members. Oxytocin has also been implicated inlyingwhen lying would prove beneficial to other in-group members. In a study where such a relationship was examined, it was found that when individuals were administered oxytocin, rates ofdishonestyin the participants' responses increased for their in-group members when a beneficial outcome for their group was expected.[93]Both of these examples show the tendency of individuals to act in ways that benefit those considered to be members of their social group, or in-group.
  • Decreased oxytocin & receptor expression has been associated with aggressive behavior in aggressive-impulsive disorders.[94]

Oxytocin is not only correlated with the preferences of individuals to associate with members of their own group, but it is also evident during conflicts between members of different groups. During conflict, individuals receiving nasally administered oxytocin demonstrate more frequent defense-motivated responses toward in-group members than out-group members. Further, oxytocin was correlated with participant desire to protect vulnerable in-group members, despite that individual's attachment to the conflict.[95]Similarly, it has been demonstrated that when oxytocin is administered, individuals alter their subjective preferences in order to align with in-group ideals over out-group ideals.[96]These studies demonstrate that oxytocin is associated with intergroup dynamics. Further, oxytocin influences the responses of individuals in a particular group to those of another group. The in-group bias is evident in smaller groups; however, it can also be extended to groups as large as one's entire country leading toward a tendency of strong national zeal. A study done in the Netherlands showed that oxytocin increased the in-group favoritism of their nation while decreasing acceptance of members of other ethnicities and foreigners.[97]People also show more affection for their country's flag while remaining indifferent to other cultural objects when exposed to oxytocin.[98]It has thus been hypothesized that this hormone may be a factor inxenophobictendencies secondary to this effect. Thus, oxytocin appears to affect individuals at an international level where the in-group becomes a specific "home" country and the out-group grows to include all other countries.

Drugs

[edit]

Fear and anxiety

[edit]

Oxytocin is typically remembered for the effect it has onprosocial behaviors,such as its role in facilitating trust and attachment between individuals.[104][qualify evidence]However, oxytocin has a more complex role than solely enhancing prosocial behaviors. There is consensus that oxytocin modulatesfearandanxiety;that is, it does not directly elicit fear or anxiety.[105]Two dominant theories explain the role of oxytocin in fear and anxiety. One theory states that oxytocin increases approach/avoidance to certain social stimuli and the second theory states that oxytocin increases the salience of certain social stimuli, causing animals (including humans) to pay closer attention to socially relevant stimuli.[106][107][108]

Nasally administered oxytocin has been reported to reducefear,possibly by inhibiting theamygdala(which is thought to be responsible for fear responses).[109]Indeed, studies in rodents have shown oxytocin can efficiently inhibit fear responses by activating an inhibitory circuit within the amygdala.[110][111]Some researchers have argued oxytocin has a general enhancing effect on all social emotions, since intranasal administration of oxytocin also increasesenvyandSchadenfreude.[112]Individuals who receive an intranasal dose of oxytocin identify facial expressions of disgust more quickly than individuals who do not receive oxytocin.[106][qualify evidence]Facial expressions of disgust are evolutionarily linked to the idea of contagion. Thus, oxytocin increases the salience of cues that imply contamination, which leads to a faster response because these cues are especially relevant for survival. In another study, after administration of oxytocin, individuals displayed an enhanced ability to recognize expressions of fear compared to the individuals who received the placebo.[113]Oxytocin modulates fear responses by enhancing the maintenance of social memories. Rats who are genetically modified to have a surplus of oxytocin receptors display a greater fear response to a previously conditioned stressor. Oxytocin enhances the aversive social memory, leading the rat to display a greater fear response when the aversive stimulus is encountered again.[105]

Mood and depression

[edit]

Oxytocin producesantidepressant-like effects inanimal modelsofdepression,[114]and a deficit of it may be involved in thepathophysiologyof depression in humans.[115]The antidepressant-like effects of oxytocin are not blocked by a selective antagonist of the oxytocin receptor, suggesting that these effects are not mediated by the oxytocin receptor.[33]In accordance, unlike oxytocin, the selective non-peptide oxytocin receptor agonistWAY-267,464does not produce antidepressant-like effects, at least in thetail suspension test.[116]In contrast to WAY-267,464,carbetocin,a closeanalogueof oxytocin and peptide oxytocin receptor agonist, notably does produce antidepressant-like effects in animals.[116]As such, the antidepressant-like effects of oxytocin may be mediated by modulation of a different target, perhaps thevasopressin V1Areceptorwhere oxytocin is known to weakly bind as an agonist.[117][118]

Oxytocin mediates the antidepressant-like effects of sexual activity.[119][120]A drug forsexual dysfunction,sildenafilenhances electrically evoked oxytocin release from thepituitary gland.[121]In accordance, it may have promise as an antidepressant.[114][122]

Sex differences

[edit]

It has been shown that oxytocin differentially affects males and females. Females who are administered oxytocin are overall faster in responding to socially relevant stimuli than males who received oxytocin.[106][123]Additionally, after the administration of oxytocin, females show increasedamygdalaactivity in response to threatening scenes; however, males do not show increased amygdala activation. This phenomenon can be explained by looking at the role ofgonadal hormones,specificallyestrogen,which modulate the enhanced threat processing seen in females. Estrogen has been shown to stimulate the release of oxytocin from thehypothalamusand promote receptor binding in the amygdala.[123]

It has also been shown that testosterone directly suppresses oxytocin in mice.[124]This has been hypothesized to have evolutionary significance. With oxytocin suppressed, activities such as hunting and attacking invaders would be less mentally difficult as oxytocin is strongly associated with empathy.[125]

Social

[edit]

Because Oxytocin plays a role in social bonding, maternal behaviors and emotional connections between people, it is also informally referred to as the "love hormone".[126]This term is not a medical or scientific name but is often used to describe oxytocin's effects on human behavior and emotions.

  • Affectinggenerosityby increasing empathy during perspective taking: In aneuroeconomicsexperiment,intranasaloxytocin increased generosity in theUltimatum Gameby 80%, but had no effect in theDictator Gamethat measures altruism. Perspective-taking is not required in the Dictator Game, but the researchers in this experiment explicitly induced perspective-taking in the Ultimatum Game by not identifying to participants into which role they would be placed.[127]Serious methodological questions have arisen, however, with regard to the role of oxytocin in trust and generosity.[128]Empathy in healthy males has been shown to be increased after intranasal oxytocin[125][129]This is most likely due to the effect of oxytocin in enhancing eye gaze.[130]There is some discussion about which aspect of empathy oxytocin might alter – for example, cognitive vs. emotional empathy.[131]While studying wild chimpanzees, it was noted that after a chimpanzee shared food with a non-kin related chimpanzee, the subjects' levels of oxytocin increased, as measured through their urine. In comparison to other cooperative activities between chimpanzees that were monitored including grooming, food sharing generated higher levels of oxytocin. This comparatively higher level of oxytocin after food sharing parallels the increased level of oxytocin in nursing mothers, sharing nutrients with their kin.[132]
  • Trustis increased by oxytocin.[133][134][135][136]Study found that with the oxytocin nasal spray, people place more trust to strangers in handling their money.[133][137]Disclosure of emotional events is a sign of trust in humans. When recounting a negative event, humans who receiveintranasaloxytocin share more emotional details and stories with more emotional significance.[135]Humans also find faces more trustworthy after receiving intranasal oxytocin. In a study, participants who received intranasal oxytocin viewed photographs of human faces with neutral expressions and found them to be more trustworthy than those who did not receive oxytocin.[134]This may be because oxytocin reduces the fear of social betrayal in humans.[138]Even after experiencing social alienation by being excluded from a conversation, humans who received oxytocin scored higher in trust on theRevised NEO Personality Inventory.[136]Moreover, in a risky investment game, experimental subjects given nasally administered oxytocin displayed "the highest level of trust" twice as often as the control group. Subjects who were told they were interacting with a computer showed no such reaction, leading to the conclusion that oxytocin was not merely affectingrisk aversion.[139]When there is a reason to be distrustful, such as experiencing betrayal, differing reactions are associated withoxytocin receptorgene(OXTR) differences. Those with the CThaplotype[clarification needed]experience a stronger reaction, in the form of anger, to betrayal.[140]
  • Romantic attachment:In some studies, high levels ofplasmaoxytocin have been correlated with romantic attachment. For example, if a couple is separated for a long period of time, anxiety can increase due to the lack of physical affection. Oxytocin may aid romantically attached couples by increasing feelings of anxiety during separation.[141]
  • Group-serving dishonesty/deception: In a carefully controlled study exploring the biological roots of immoral behavior, oxytocin was shown to promote dishonesty when the outcome favored the group to which an individual belonged instead of just the individual.[142]
  • Oxytocin affectssocialdistance between adult males and females, and may be responsible at least in part forromantic attractionand subsequentmonogamouspair bonding. An oxytocin nasal spray caused men in a monogamous relationship, but not single men, to increase the distance between themselves and an attractive woman during a first encounter by 10 to 15 centimeters. The researchers suggested that oxytocin may help promote fidelity within monogamous relationships.[143]For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the "bonding hormone". There is some evidence that oxytocin promotesethnocentricbehavior, incorporating the trust and empathy ofin-groupswith their suspicion and rejection of outsiders.[97]Furthermore, genetic differences in theoxytocin receptorgene (OXTR) have been associated with maladaptive social traits such as aggressive behavior.[144]
  • Social behavior[97][145]andwound healing:Oxytocin is also thought to modulateinflammationby decreasing certaincytokines.[146]Thus, the increased release in oxytocin following positive social interactions has the potential to improve wound healing. A study by Marazziti and colleagues used heterosexual couples to investigate this possibility. They found increases in plasma oxytocin following a social interaction were correlated with faster wound healing. They hypothesized this was due to oxytocin reducing inflammation, thus allowing the wound to heal more quickly. This study provides preliminary evidence that positive social interactions may directly influence aspects of health.[147]
  • According to a study published in 2014, silencing of oxytocin receptor interneurons in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of female mice resulted in loss of social interest in male mice during the sexually receptive phase of the estrous cycle.[148]Oxytocin evokes feelings of contentment, reductions in anxiety, and feelings of calmness and security when in the company of the mate.[141]This suggests oxytocin may be important for the inhibition of the brain regions associated with behavioral control, fear, and anxiety, thus allowing orgasm to occur. Research has also demonstrated that oxytocin can decrease anxiety and protect againststress,particularly in combination with social support.[149][150]It is found thatendocannabinoidsignaling mediates oxytocin-driven social reward.[151]During a 2008 study, a lack of oxytocin in mice was associated with abnormalities in emotional behavior.[152]Another study conducted in 2014 saw similar results with a variation in the oxytocin receptor connected with dopamine transport and how levels of oxytocin are dependent on the levels of dopamine transporter levels.[153]One study explored the effects of low levels of oxytocin and the other on possible explanation of what affects oxytocin receptors. As a lack of social skills and proper emotional behavior are common signs of Autism, low levels of oxytocin could become a new sign for individuals that fall into the Autism Spectrum.

Chemistry

[edit]
Oxytocin (ball-and-stick) bound to its carrier protein neurophysin (ribbons)

Oxytocin is apeptideof nineamino acids(anonapeptide) in the sequence cysteine-tyrosine-isoleucine-glutamine-asparagine-cysteine-proline-leucine-glycine-amide (Cys–Tyr–Ile–Gln–Asn– Cys –Pro–Leu–Gly– NH2,or CYIQNCPLG-NH2); itsC-terminus has been converted to aprimary amideand adisulfide bridgejoins the cysteinemoieties.[154]Oxytocin has amolecular massof 1007Da,and oneinternational unit(IU) of oxytocin is the equivalent of 1.68μgof pure peptide.[155]

While the structure of oxytocin is highly conserved in placental mammals, a novel structure of oxytocin was reported in 2011 inmarmosets,tamarins,and other new worldprimates.Genomic sequencing of the gene for oxytocin revealed a singlein-frame mutation(thymineforcytosine) which results in a single amino acid substitution at the 8-position (prolineforleucine).[156]Since this original Leeet al.paper, two other laboratories have confirmed Pro8-OT and documented additional oxytocin structural variants in this primate taxon. Vargas-Pinillaet al.sequenced the coding regions of the OXT gene in other genera in new world primates and identified the following variants in addition to Leu8- and Pro8-OT: Ala8-OT, Thr8-OT, and Val3/Pro8-OT.[157]Renet al.identified a variant further, Phe2-OT inhowler monkeys.[158]

Recent advances in analytical instrumental techniques highlighted the importance of liquid chromatography (LC) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) for measuring oxytocin levels in various samples derived from biological sources. Most of these studies optimized the oxytocin quantification in electrospray ionization (ESI) positive mode, using [M+H]+as the parent ion at mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) 1007.4 and the fragment ions as diagnostic peaks atm/z991.0,[159]m/z723.2[160]andm/z504.2.[161]These important ion selections paved the way for the development of current methods of oxytocin quantification using MS instrumentation.

The structure of oxytocin is very similar to that ofvasopressin.Both are nonapeptides with a single disulfide bridge, differing only by two substitutions in the amino acid sequence (differences from oxytocin bolded for clarity): Cys – Tyr –Phe– Gln – Asn – Cys – Pro –Arg– Gly – NH2.[154]Oxytocin and vasopressin were isolated and theirtotal synthesisreported in 1954,[162]work for whichVincent du Vigneaudwas awarded the 1955Nobel Prize in Chemistrywith the citation: "for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone."[163]

Oxytocin and vasopressin are the only known hormones released by the humanposterior pituitary glandto act at a distance. However, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, includingcorticotropin-releasing hormoneanddynorphin,for example, that act locally. Themagnocellular neurosecretory cellsthat make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurosecretory cells that make vasopressin. These are large neuroendocrine neurons which are excitable and can generate action potentials.[164]

[edit]

"Oxytocin" is the name of the fifth song onBillie Eilish's second albumHappier Than Ever.

Oxytocin is mentioned in the first lyric ofPost Malone's songChemical.

In the novelThe FiremanbyJoe Hill,the hormone plays a role in neutralizing the danger posed by an infectious spore that causes a condition known as Dragonscale. If the spore enters an oxytocin-rich environment, it will enter a dormant state instead of causing its host to undergospontaneous human combustion.

The formula for oxytocin is displayed as written on the fingers ofNina Zilliand appears in the opening shot of her video for "Sola".

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^"FDA-sourced list of all drugs with black box warnings (Use Download Full Results and View Query links.)".nctr-crs.fda.gov.FDA.Retrieved22 Oct2023.
  2. ^Weisman O, Zagoory-Sharon O, Feldman R (September 2012). "Intranasal oxytocin administration is reflected in human saliva".Psychoneuroendocrinology.37(9): 1582–1586.doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.02.014.PMID22436536.S2CID25253083.
  3. ^Huffmeijer R, Alink LR, Tops M, Grewen KM, Light KC, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, et al. (2012). "Salivary levels of oxytocin remain elevated for more than two hours after intranasal oxytocin administration".Neuro Endocrinology Letters.33(1): 21–25.PMID22467107.
  4. ^Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice(41 ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences. 2015. p. 358.ISBN978-0-7020-6851-5.
  5. ^Audunsdottir K, Quintana DS (2022-01-25)."Oxytocin's dynamic role across the lifespan".Aging Brain.2:100028.doi:10.1016/j.nbas.2021.100028.ISSN2589-9589.PMC9997153.PMID36908876.S2CID246314607.
  6. ^Leng G, Leng RI (November 2021)."Oxytocin: A citation network analysis of 10 000 papers".Journal of Neuroendocrinology.33(11): e13014.doi:10.1111/jne.13014.hdl:20.500.11820/d2bdf31e-1d12-4abf-80a3-659a7e31a9f7.PMID34328668.S2CID236516186.
  7. ^Francis DD, Young LJ, Meaney MJ, Insel TR (May 2002). "Naturally occurring differences in maternal care are associated with the expression of oxytocin and vasopressin (V1a) receptors: gender differences".Journal of Neuroendocrinology.14(5): 349–53.doi:10.1046/j.0007-1331.2002.00776.x.PMID12000539.S2CID16005801.
  8. ^Gainer H, Fields RL, House SB (October 2001). "Vasopressin gene expression: experimental models and strategies".Experimental Neurology.171(2): 190–9.doi:10.1006/exnr.2001.7769.PMID11573971.S2CID25718623.
  9. ^Rogers K (7 July 2023)."Oxytocin".Encyclopædia Britannica.
  10. ^abChiras DD (2012).Human Biology(7th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 262.ISBN978-0-7637-8345-7.
  11. ^Human Evolutionary Biology.Cambridge University Press. 2010. p. 282.ISBN978-1-139-78900-4.
  12. ^"oxytocic - Wiktionary".en.wiktionary.org.14 October 2019.Retrieved2021-08-05.
  13. ^"oxytocin - Wiktionary".en.wiktionary.org.15 July 2021.Retrieved2021-08-05.
  14. ^Yong E (13 November 2015)."The weak science behind the wrongly named moral molecule".The Atlantic.Retrieved18 September2023.
  15. ^Dale HH (May 1906)."On some physiological actions of ergot".The Journal of Physiology.34(3): 163–206.doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1906.sp001148.PMC1465771.PMID16992821.
  16. ^abLee HJ, Macbeth AH, Pagani JH, Young WS (June 2009)."Oxytocin: the great facilitator of life".Progress in Neurobiology.88(2): 127–151.doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.04.001.PMC2689929.PMID19482229.
  17. ^Ott I, Scott JC (1910)."The action of infundibulin upon the mammary secretion".Experimental Biology and Medicine.8(2): 48–49.doi:10.3181/00379727-8-27.S2CID87519246.
  18. ^Schafer EA, Mackenzie K (July 1911)."The Action of Animal Extracts on Milk Secretion".Proceedings of the Royal Society B.84(568): 16–22.Bibcode:1911RSPSB..84...16S.doi:10.1098/rspb.1911.0042.
  19. ^Bell WB (December 1909)."The Pituitary Body and the Therapeutic Value of the Infundibular Extract in Shock, Uterine Atony, and Intestinal Paresis".British Medical Journal.2(2553): 1609–1613.doi:10.1136/bmj.2.2553.1609.PMC2321437.PMID20764780.
  20. ^Stone ML (January 1950). "The intravenous use of dilute pituitrin for the induction and stimulation of labor".American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology.59(1): 49–57.doi:10.1016/0002-9378(50)90340-1.PMID15399625.
  21. ^Corey EJ (2012)."Oxytocin".Molecules and Medicine.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-1-118-36173-3.
  22. ^Du Vigneaud V, Ressler C, Trippett S (December 1953)."The sequence of amino acids in oxytocin, with a proposal for the structure of oxytocin".The Journal of Biological Chemistry.205(2): 949–957.doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)49238-1.PMID13129273.
  23. ^Lee HJ, Macbeth AH, Pagani JH, Young WS (June 2009)."Oxytocin: the great facilitator of life".Progress in Neurobiology.88(2). US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health: 127–151.doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.04.001.PMC2689929.PMID19482229.
  24. ^du Vigneaud V, Ressler C, Swan JM, Roberts CW, Katsoyannis PG, Gordon S (1953). "The synthesis of an octapeptide amide with the hormonal activity of oxytocin".J. Am. Chem. Soc.75(19): 4879–80.doi:10.1021/ja01115a553.
  25. ^du Vigneaud V, Ressler C, Swan JM, Roberts CW, Katsoyannis PG (1954). "The Synthesis of Oxytocin1".Journal of the American Chemical Society.76(12): 3115–21.doi:10.1021/ja01641a004.
  26. ^Du Vigneaud V (June 1956). "Trail of sulfur research: from insulin to oxytocin".Science.123(3205): 967–974.Bibcode:1956Sci...123..967D.doi:10.1126/science.123.3205.967.PMID13324123.
  27. ^Iphigenia Vourvidou-Photaki: Biographical Statement and Scientific Work(PDF)(in Greek). Athens: F. Konstantinidis & K. Mihalas. 1968. pp. 5–42. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2021-04-12.Retrieved2021-04-13.
  28. ^abcGRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000101405–Ensembl,May 2017
  29. ^abcGRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000027301–Ensembl,May 2017
  30. ^"Human PubMed Reference:".National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  31. ^"Mouse PubMed Reference:".National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  32. ^Goldstein I, Meston CM, Davis S, Traish A (17 November 2005).Women's Sexual Function and Dysfunction: Study, Diagnosis and Treatment.CRC Press. pp. 205–.ISBN978-1-84214-263-9.
  33. ^abAcevedo-Rodriguez A, Mani SK, Handa RJ (2015)."Oxytocin and Estrogen Receptor β in the Brain: An Overview".Frontiers in Endocrinology.6:160.doi:10.3389/fendo.2015.00160.PMC4606117.PMID26528239.
  34. ^Sausville E, Carney D, Battey J (August 1985)."The human vasopressin gene is linked to the oxytocin gene and is selectively expressed in a cultured lung cancer cell line".The Journal of Biological Chemistry.260(18): 10236–10241.doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(17)39236-0.PMID2991279.
  35. ^Repaske DR, Phillips JA, Kirby LT, Tze WJ, D'Ercole AJ, Battey J (March 1990). "Molecular analysis of autosomal dominant neurohypophyseal diabetes insipidus".The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism.70(3): 752–757.doi:10.1210/jcem-70-3-752.PMID1968469.
  36. ^Summar ML, Phillips JA, Battey J, Castiglione CM, Kidd KK, Maness KJ, et al. (June 1990)."Linkage relationships of human arginine vasopressin-neurophysin-II and oxytocin-neurophysin-I to prodynorphin and other loci on chromosome 20".Molecular Endocrinology.4(6): 947–950.doi:10.1210/mend-4-6-947.PMID1978246.
  37. ^Brownstein MJ, Russell JT, Gainer H (January 1980). "Synthesis, transport, and release of posterior pituitary hormones".Science.207(4429): 373–378.Bibcode:1980Sci...207..373B.doi:10.1126/science.6153132.PMID6153132.
  38. ^Sheldrick EL, Flint AP (July 1989). "Post-translational processing of oxytocin-neurophysin prohormone in the ovine corpus luteum: activity of peptidyl glycine Alpha -amidating mono-oxygenase and concentrations of its cofactor, ascorbic acid".The Journal of Endocrinology.122(1): 313–322.doi:10.1677/joe.0.1220313.PMID2769155.
  39. ^Luck MR, Jungclas B (September 1987)."Catecholamines and ascorbic acid as stimulators of bovine ovarian oxytocin secretion"(PDF).The Journal of Endocrinology.114(3): 423–430.doi:10.1677/joe.0.1140423.PMID3668432.S2CID24630906.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2019-02-22.
  40. ^Hornig D (September 1975). "Distribution of ascorbic acid, metabolites and analogues in man and animals".Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.258(1): 103–118.Bibcode:1975NYASA.258..103H.doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1975.tb29271.x.PMID1106295.S2CID22881895.
  41. ^abTsujimoto M, Hattori A (August 2005). "The oxytocinase subfamily of M1 aminopeptidases".Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Proteins and Proteomics.1751(1): 9–18.doi:10.1016/j.bbapap.2004.09.011.PMID16054015.
  42. ^Nomura S, Ito T, Yamamoto E, Sumigama S, Iwase A, Okada M, et al. (August 2005). "Gene regulation and physiological function of placental leucine aminopeptidase/oxytocinase during pregnancy".Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Proteins and Proteomics.1751(1): 19–25.doi:10.1016/j.bbapap.2005.04.006.PMID15894523.
  43. ^abMizutani S, Yokosawa H, Tomoda Y (July 1992)."Degradation of oxytocin by the human placenta: effect of selective inhibitors"(PDF).Acta Endocrinologica.127(1): 76–80.doi:10.1530/acta.0.1270076.PMID1355623.S2CID21289122.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2019-02-24.
  44. ^Meisenberg G, Simmons WH (1984)."Amastatin potentiates the behavioral effects of vasopressin and oxytocin in mice".Peptides.5(3): 535–539.doi:10.1016/0196-9781(84)90083-4.PMID6540873.S2CID3881661.
  45. ^Stancampiano R, Melis MR, Argiolas A (1991). "Proteolytic conversion of oxytocin by brain synaptic membranes: role of aminopeptidases and endopeptidases".Peptides.12(5): 1119–1125.doi:10.1016/0196-9781(91)90068-z.PMID1800950.S2CID36706540.
  46. ^Itoh C, Watanabe M, Nagamatsu A, Soeda S, Kawarabayashi T, Shimeno H (January 1997)."Two molecular species of oxytocinase (L-cystine aminopeptidase) in human placenta: purification and characterization".Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin.20(1): 20–24.doi:10.1248/bpb.20.20.PMID9013800.
  47. ^Sukhov RR, Walker LC, Rance NE, Price DL, Young WS (November 1993)."Vasopressin and oxytocin gene expression in the human hypothalamus".The Journal of Comparative Neurology.337(2): 295–306.doi:10.1002/cne.903370210.PMC9883978.PMID8277003.S2CID35174328.
  48. ^abcRoss HE, Cole CD, Smith Y, Neumann ID, Landgraf R, Murphy AZ, et al. (September 2009)."Characterization of the oxytocin system regulating affiliative behavior in female prairie voles".Neuroscience.162(4): 892–903.doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.05.055.PMC2744157.PMID19482070.
  49. ^Landgraf R, Neumann ID (2004). "Vasopressin and oxytocin release within the brain: a dynamic concept of multiple and variable modes of neuropeptide communication".Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology.25(3–4): 150–176.doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2004.05.001.PMID15589267.S2CID30507377.
  50. ^Baribeau DA, Anagnostou E (2015)."Oxytocin and vasopressin: linking pituitary neuropeptides and their receptors to social neurocircuits".Frontiers in Neuroscience.9:335.doi:10.3389/fnins.2015.00335.PMC4585313.PMID26441508.
  51. ^Wathes DC, Swann RW (May 1982). "Is oxytocin an ovarian hormone?".Nature.297(5863): 225–227.Bibcode:1982Natur.297..225W.doi:10.1038/297225a0.PMID7078636.S2CID4364778.
  52. ^Wathes DC, Swann RW, Pickering BT, Porter DG, Hull MG, Drife JO (August 1982). "Neurohypophysial hormones in the human ovary".Lancet.2(8295): 410–412.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(82)90441-X.PMID6124806.S2CID42282964.
  53. ^Fields PA, Eldridge RK, Fuchs AR, Roberts RF, Fields MJ (April 1983). "Human placental and bovine corpora luteal oxytocin".Endocrinology.112(4): 1544–1546.doi:10.1210/endo-112-4-1544.PMID6832059.
  54. ^Guldenaar SE, Pickering BT (1985). "Immunocytochemical evidence for the presence of oxytocin in rat testis".Cell and Tissue Research.240(2): 485–487.doi:10.1007/BF00222364.PMID3995564.S2CID34325145.
  55. ^Gauquelin G, Geelen G, Louis F, Allevard AM, Meunier C, Cuisinaud G, et al. (1983). "Presence of vasopressin, oxytocin and neurophysin in the retina of mammals, effect of light and darkness, comparison with the neuropeptide content of the neurohypophysis and the pineal gland".Peptides.4(4): 509–515.doi:10.1016/0196-9781(83)90056-6.PMID6647119.S2CID3848055.
  56. ^Ang VT, Jenkins JS (April 1984). "Neurohypophysial hormones in the adrenal medulla".The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism.58(4): 688–691.doi:10.1210/jcem-58-4-688.PMID6699132.
  57. ^Geenen V, Legros JJ, Franchimont P, Baudrihaye M, Defresne MP, Boniver J (April 1986)."The neuroendocrine thymus: coexistence of oxytocin and neurophysin in the human thymus".Science.232(4749): 508–511.Bibcode:1986Sci...232..508G.doi:10.1126/science.3961493.hdl:2268/16909.PMID3961493.
  58. ^Amico JA, Finn FM, Haldar J (November 1988). "Oxytocin and vasopressin are present in human and rat pancreas".The American Journal of the Medical Sciences.296(5): 303–307.doi:10.1097/00000441-198811000-00003.PMID3195625.S2CID20084873.
  59. ^Kukucka MA, Misra HP (1992)."HPLC determination of an oxytocin-like peptide produced by isolated guinea pig Leydig cells: stimulation by ascorbate".Archives of Andrology.29(2): 185–190.doi:10.3109/01485019208987723.PMID1456839.
  60. ^[1][dead link]
  61. ^Venkatesh B, Si-Hoe SL, Murphy D, Brenner S (November 1997)."Transgenic rats reveal functional conservation of regulatory controls between the Fugu isotocin and rat oxytocin genes".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.94(23): 12462–12466.Bibcode:1997PNAS...9412462V.doi:10.1073/pnas.94.23.12462.PMC25001.PMID9356472.
  62. ^abcdGimpl G, Fahrenholz F (April 2001)."The oxytocin receptor system: structure, function, and regulation"(PDF).Physiological Reviews.81(2): 629–683.doi:10.1152/physrev.2001.81.2.629.PMID11274341.S2CID13265083.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2020-11-16.
  63. ^Akinrinade I, Kareklas K, Teles MC, Reis TK, Gliksberg M, Petri G, et al. (March 2023). "Evolutionarily conserved role of oxytocin in social fear contagion in zebrafish".Science.379(6638): 1232–1237.Bibcode:2023Sci...379.1232A.doi:10.1126/science.abq5158.PMID36952426.
  64. ^Quattropani A, Dorbais J, Covini D, Pittet PA, Colovray V, Thomas RJ, et al. (December 2005). "Discovery and development of a new class of potent, selective, orally active oxytocin receptor antagonists".Journal of Medicinal Chemistry.48(24): 7882–7905.doi:10.1021/jm050645f.PMID16302826.S2CID11213732.
  65. ^Holmes B (11 February 2022)."Oxytocin's effects aren't just about love".Knowable Magazine.doi:10.1146/knowable-021122-1.Retrieved15 February2022.
  66. ^Froemke RC, Young LJ (July 2021)."Oxytocin, Neural Plasticity, and Social Behavior".Annual Review of Neuroscience.44(1): 359–381.doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-102320-102847.PMC8604207.PMID33823654.
  67. ^Human Milk and LactationateMedicine
  68. ^MacGill M."What is oxytocin, and what does it do?".Medical News Today.Heath Line Media.RetrievedMarch 29,2017.
  69. ^abTakayanagi Y, Yoshida M, Bielsky IF, Ross HE, Kawamata M, Onaka T, et al. (November 2005)."Pervasive social deficits, but normal parturition, in oxytocin receptor-deficient mice".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.102(44): 16096–16101.Bibcode:2005PNAS..10216096T.doi:10.1073/pnas.0505312102.PMC1276060.PMID16249339.
  70. ^abThackare H, Nicholson HD, Whittington K (2006-08-01)."Oxytocin--its role in male reproduction and new potential therapeutic uses".Human Reproduction Update.12(4): 437–448.doi:10.1093/humupd/dmk002.PMID16436468.
  71. ^abcCarmichael MS, Humbert R, Dixen J, Palmisano G, Greenleaf W, Davidson JM (January 1987). "Plasma oxytocin increases in the human sexual response".The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism.64(1): 27–31.doi:10.1210/jcem-64-1-27.PMID3782434.
  72. ^Carmichael MS, Warburton VL, Dixen J, Davidson JM (February 1994). "Relationships among cardiovascular, muscular, and oxytocin responses during human sexual activity".Archives of Sexual Behavior.23(1): 59–79.doi:10.1007/BF01541618.PMID8135652.S2CID36539568.
  73. ^Blaicher W, Gruber D, Bieglmayer C, Blaicher AM, Knogler W, Huber JC (1999). "The role of oxytocin in relation to female sexual arousal".Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation.47(2): 125–126.doi:10.1159/000010075.PMID9949283.S2CID43036197.
  74. ^Anderson-Hunt M, Dennerstein L (1995). "Oxytocin and female sexuality".Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation.40(4): 217–221.doi:10.1159/000292340.PMID8586300.
  75. ^Murphy MR, Seckl JR, Burton S, Checkley SA, Lightman SL (October 1987)."Changes in oxytocin and vasopressin secretion during sexual activity in men".The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism.65(4): 738–741.doi:10.1210/jcem-65-4-738.PMID3654918.
  76. ^Krüger TH, Haake P, Chereath D, Knapp W, Janssen OE, Exton MS, et al. (April 2003)."Specificity of the neuroendocrine response to orgasm during sexual arousal in men".The Journal of Endocrinology.177(1): 57–64.doi:10.1677/joe.0.1770057.PMID12697037.
  77. ^Paquin J, Danalache BA, Jankowski M, McCann SM, Gutkowska J (July 2002)."Oxytocin induces differentiation of P19 embryonic stem cells to cardiomyocytes".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.99(14): 9550–9555.Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.9550P.doi:10.1073/pnas.152302499.PMC123178.PMID12093924.
  78. ^Jankowski M, Danalache B, Wang D, Bhat P, Hajjar F, Marcinkiewicz M, et al. (August 2004)."Oxytocin in cardiac ontogeny".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.101(35): 13074–13079.Bibcode:2004PNAS..10113074J.doi:10.1073/pnas.0405324101.PMC516519.PMID15316117.
  79. ^Hartwig W (1989).Endokrynologia praktyczna.Warsaw:Państwowy Zakład Wydawnictw Lekarskich.ISBN978-83-200-1415-0.[page needed]
  80. ^Tyzio R, Cossart R, Khalilov I, Minlebaev M, Hübner CA, Represa A, et al. (December 2006)."Maternal oxytocin triggers a transient inhibitory switch in GABA signaling in the fetal brain during delivery"(PDF).Science.314(5806): 1788–1792.Bibcode:2006Sci...314.1788T.doi:10.1126/science.1133212.PMID17170309.S2CID85151049.
  81. ^Atasoy D, Betley JN, Su HH, Sternson SM (August 2012)."Deconstruction of a neural circuit for hunger".Nature.488(7410): 172–177.Bibcode:2012Natur.488..172A.doi:10.1038/nature11270.PMC3416931.PMID22801496.
  82. ^Odekunle EA, Semmens DC, Martynyuk N, Tinoco AB, Garewal AK, Patel RR, et al. (July 2019)."Ancient role of vasopressin/oxytocin-type neuropeptides as regulators of feeding revealed in an echinoderm".BMC Biology.17(1): 60.doi:10.1186/s12915-019-0680-2.PMC6668147.PMID31362737.
  83. ^abJacob S, Brune CW, Carter CS, Leventhal BL, Lord C, Cook EH (April 2007)."Association of the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) in Caucasian children and adolescents with autism".Neuroscience Letters.417(1): 6–9.doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2007.02.001.PMC2705963.PMID17383819.
  84. ^Wermter AK, Kamp-Becker I, Hesse P, Schulte-Körne G, Strauch K, Remschmidt H (March 2010). "Evidence for the involvement of genetic variation in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) in the etiology of autistic disorders on high-functioning level".American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics.153B(2): 629–639.doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.31032.PMID19777562.S2CID15970613.
  85. ^Dayi A, Cetin F, Sisman AR, Aksu I, Tas A, Gönenc S, et al. (January 2015)."The effects of oxytocin on cognitive defect caused by chronic restraint stress applied to adolescent rats and on hippocampal VEGF and BDNF levels".Medical Science Monitor.21:69–75.doi:10.12659/MSM.893159.PMC4294596.PMID25559382.
  86. ^Leuner B, Caponiti JM, Gould E (April 2012)."Oxytocin stimulates adult neurogenesis even under conditions of stress and elevated glucocorticoids".Hippocampus.22(4): 861–868.doi:10.1002/hipo.20947.PMC4756590.PMID21692136.
  87. ^Ye C, Cheng M, Ma L, Zhang T, Sun Z, Yu C, et al. (May 2022). "Oxytocin Nanogels Inhibit Innate Inflammatory Response for Early Intervention in Alzheimer's Disease".ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces.14(19): 21822–21835.doi:10.1021/acsami.2c00007.PMID35510352.S2CID248526969.
  88. ^Vacek M (2002)."High on Fidelity: What can voles teach us about monogamy?".American Scientist.Archived fromthe originalon October 15, 2006.
  89. ^Odendaal JS, Meintjes RA (May 2003). "Neurophysiological correlates of affiliative behaviour between humans and dogs".Veterinary Journal.165(3): 296–301.doi:10.1016/S1090-0233(02)00237-X.PMID12672376.
  90. ^van Leengoed E, Kerker E, Swanson HH (February 1987). "Inhibition of post-partum maternal behaviour in the rat by injecting an oxytocin antagonist into the cerebral ventricles".The Journal of Endocrinology.112(2): 275–282.doi:10.1677/joe.0.1120275.PMID3819639.
  91. ^Kendrick KM (December 2004)."The neurobiology of social bonds".Journal of Neuroendocrinology.16(12). British Society for Neuroendocrinology: 1007–1008.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2004.01262.x.PMID15667456.S2CID21635457.Archived fromthe originalon 2009-04-29.Retrieved2009-04-13.
  92. ^Bick J, Dozier M (January 2010)."Mothers' and Children's Concentrations of Oxytocin Following Close, Physical Interactions with Biological and Non-biological Children".Developmental Psychobiology.52(1): 100–107.doi:10.1002/dev.20411.PMC2953948.PMID20953313.
  93. ^Shalvi S, De Dreu CK (April 2014)."Oxytocin promotes group-serving dishonesty".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.111(15): 5503–5507.Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.5503S.doi:10.1073/pnas.1400724111.PMC3992689.PMID24706799.
  94. ^Science Direct: Decreased oxytocin plasma levels and oxytocin receptor expression associated with aggressive behavior in aggressive-impulsive disorders
  95. ^De Dreu CK, Shalvi S, Greer LL, Van Kleef GA, Handgraaf MJ (2012)."Oxytocin motivates non-cooperation in intergroup conflict to protect vulnerable in-group members".PLOS ONE.7(11): e46751.Bibcode:2012PLoSO...746751D.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0046751.PMC3492361.PMID23144787.
  96. ^Stallen M, De Dreu CK, Shalvi S, Smidts A, Sanfey AG (2012). "The herding hormone: oxytocin stimulates in-group conformity".Psychological Science.23(11): 1288–1292.doi:10.1177/0956797612446026.hdl:2066/121872.PMID22991128.S2CID16255677.
  97. ^abcDe Dreu CK, Greer LL, Van Kleef GA, Shalvi S, Handgraaf MJ (January 2011)."Oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.108(4): 1262–1266.Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.1262D.doi:10.1073/pnas.1015316108.PMC3029708.PMID21220339.
  98. ^Ma X, Luo L, Geng Y, Zhao W, Zhang Q, Kendrick KM (2014)."Oxytocin increases liking for a country's people and national flag but not for other cultural symbols or consumer products".Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience.8:266.doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00266.PMC4122242.PMID25140135.
  99. ^Kovács GL, Sarnyai Z, Szabó G (November 1998). "Oxytocin and addiction: a review".Psychoneuroendocrinology.23(8): 945–962.doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(98)00064-X.PMID9924746.S2CID31674417.
  100. ^Thompson MR, Callaghan PD, Hunt GE, Cornish JL, McGregor IS (May 2007). "A role for oxytocin and 5-HT(1A) receptors in the prosocial effects of 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (" ecstasy ")".Neuroscience.146(2): 509–514.doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.02.032.PMID17383105.S2CID15617471.
  101. ^Uvnäs-Moberg K, Hillegaart V, Alster P, Ahlenius S (1996). "Effects of 5-HT agonists, selective for different receptor subtypes, on oxytocin, CCK, gastrin and somatostatin plasma levels in the rat".Neuropharmacology.35(11): 1635–1640.doi:10.1016/S0028-3908(96)00078-0.PMID9025112.S2CID44375951.
  102. ^Chiodera P, Volpi R, Capretti L, Caffarri G, Magotti MG, Coiro V (April 1996). "Different effects of the serotonergic agonists buspirone and sumatriptan on the posterior pituitary hormonal responses to hypoglycemia in humans".Neuropeptides.30(2): 187–192.doi:10.1016/S0143-4179(96)90086-4.PMID8771561.S2CID13734738.
  103. ^Buisman-Pijlman FT, Sumracki NM, Gordon JJ, Hull PR, Carter CS, Tops M (April 2014)."Individual differences underlying susceptibility to addiction: Role for the endogenous oxytocin system".Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior.119:22–38.doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2013.09.005.PMID24056025.
  104. ^Grillon C, Krimsky M, Charney DR, Vytal K, Ernst M, Cornwell B (September 2013)."Oxytocin increases anxiety to unpredictable threat".Molecular Psychiatry.18(9): 958–960.doi:10.1038/mp.2012.156.PMC3930442.PMID23147382.
  105. ^abGuzmán YF, Tronson NC, Jovasevic V, Sato K, Guedea AL, Mizukami H, et al. (September 2013)."Fear-enhancing effects of septal oxytocin receptors".Nature Neuroscience.16(9): 1185–1187.doi:10.1038/nn.3465.PMC3758455.PMID23872596.
  106. ^abcTheodoridou A, Penton-Voak IS, Rowe AC (2013)."A direct examination of the effect of intranasal administration of oxytocin on approach-avoidance motor responses to emotional stimuli".PLOS ONE.8(2): e58113.Bibcode:2013PLoSO...858113T.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0058113.PMC3585234.PMID23469148.
  107. ^Ibukun Akinrinade, Kyriacos Kareklas, Magda C. Teles, Thais K. Reis, Michael Gliksberg, Giovanni Petri, Gil Levkowitz, Rui F. Oliveira,Evolutionarily conserved role of oxytocin in social fear contagion in zebrafish,Science (magazine),March 23, 2023
  108. ^Larson, Christina,A fish can sense another's fear, a study shows,Associated Press,March 23, 2023
  109. ^Kirsch P, Esslinger C, Chen Q, Mier D, Lis S, Siddhanti S, et al. (December 2005)."Oxytocin modulates neural circuitry for social cognition and fear in humans".The Journal of Neuroscience.25(49): 11489–11493.doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3984-05.2005.PMC6725903.PMID16339042.
  110. ^Huber D, Veinante P, Stoop R (April 2005). "Vasopressin and oxytocin excite distinct neuronal populations in the central amygdala".Science.308(5719): 245–248.Bibcode:2005Sci...308..245H.doi:10.1126/SCIENCE.1105636.PMID15821089.S2CID40887741.
  111. ^Viviani D, Charlet A, van den Burg E, Robinet C, Hurni N, Abatis M, et al. (July 2011). "Oxytocin selectively gates fear responses through distinct outputs from the central amygdala".Science.333(6038): 104–107.Bibcode:2011Sci...333..104V.doi:10.1126/SCIENCE.1201043.PMID21719680.S2CID20446890.
  112. ^Shamay-Tsoory SG, Fischer M, Dvash J, Harari H, Perach-Bloom N, Levkovitz Y (November 2009). "Intranasal administration of oxytocin increases envy and schadenfreude (gloating)".Biological Psychiatry.66(9): 864–870.doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.06.009.PMID19640508.S2CID20396036.
  113. ^Fischer-Shofty M, Shamay-Tsoory SG, Harari H, Levkovitz Y (January 2010). "The effect of intranasal administration of oxytocin on fear recognition".Neuropsychologia.48(1): 179–184.doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.09.003.PMID19747930.S2CID34778485.
  114. ^abMatsuzaki M, Matsushita H, Tomizawa K, Matsui H (November 2012)."Oxytocin: a therapeutic target for mental disorders".The Journal of Physiological Sciences.62(6): 441–444.doi:10.1007/s12576-012-0232-9.PMC10717158.PMID23007624.S2CID17860416.
  115. ^McQuaid RJ, McInnis OA, Abizaid A, Anisman H (September 2014). "Making room for oxytocin in understanding depression".Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews.45:305–322.doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.07.005.PMID25025656.S2CID32062939.
  116. ^abShalev I, Ebstein RP (2015).Social Hormones and Human Behavior: What Do We Know and Where Do We Go from Here.Frontiers Media SA. pp. 51–.ISBN978-2-88919-407-0.
  117. ^Hicks C, Ramos L, Reekie T, Misagh GH, Narlawar R, Kassiou M, et al. (June 2014)."Body temperature and cardiac changes induced by peripherally administered oxytocin, vasopressin and the non-peptide oxytocin receptor agonist WAY 267,464: a biotelemetry study in rats".British Journal of Pharmacology.171(11): 2868–2887.doi:10.1111/bph.12613.PMC4243861.PMID24641248.
  118. ^Manning M, Misicka A, Olma A, Bankowski K, Stoev S, Chini B, et al. (April 2012)."Oxytocin and vasopressin agonists and antagonists as research tools and potential therapeutics".Journal of Neuroendocrinology.24(4): 609–628.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2012.02303.x.PMC3490377.PMID22375852.
  119. ^Matsushita H, Tomizawa K, Okimoto N, Nishiki T, Ohmori I, Matsui H (October 2010)."Oxytocin mediates the antidepressant effects of mating behavior in male mice".Neuroscience Research.68(2): 151–153.doi:10.1016/j.neures.2010.06.007.PMID20600375.S2CID207152048.
  120. ^Phan J, Alhassen L, Argelagos A, Alhassen W, Vachirakorntong B, Lin Z, et al. (August 2020)."Mating and parenting experiences sculpture mood-modulating effects of oxytocin-MCH signaling".Scientific Reports.10(1): 13611.Bibcode:2020NatSR..1013611P.doi:10.1038/s41598-020-70667-x.PMC7423941.PMID32788646.
  121. ^Zhang Z, Klyachko V, Jackson MB (October 2007)."Blockade of phosphodiesterase Type 5 enhances rat neurohypophysial excitability and electrically evoked oxytocin release".The Journal of Physiology.584(Pt 1): 137–147.doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2007.139303.PMC2277045.PMID17690141.
  122. ^Matsushita H, Matsuzaki M, Han XJ, Nishiki TI, Ohmori I, Michiue H, et al. (January 2012). "Antidepressant-like effect of sildenafil through oxytocin-dependent cyclic AMP response element-binding protein phosphorylation".Neuroscience.200:13–18.doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.11.001.PMID22088430.S2CID12502639.
  123. ^abLischke A, Gamer M, Berger C, Grossmann A, Hauenstein K, Heinrichs M, et al. (September 2012). "Oxytocin increases amygdala reactivity to threatening scenes in females".Psychoneuroendocrinology.37(9): 1431–1438.doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.01.011.PMID22365820.S2CID7981815.
  124. ^Okabe S, Kitano K, Nagasawa M, Mogi K, Kikusui T (June 2013). "Testosterone inhibits facilitating effects of parenting experience on parental behavior and the oxytocin neural system in mice".Physiology & Behavior.118:159–164.doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2013.05.017.PMID23685236.S2CID46790892.
  125. ^abHurlemann R, Patin A, Onur OA, Cohen MX, Baumgartner T, Metzler S, et al. (April 2010)."Oxytocin enhances amygdala-dependent, socially reinforced learning and emotional empathy in humans".The Journal of Neuroscience.30(14): 4999–5007.doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5538-09.2010.PMC6632777.PMID20371820.
  126. ^"Oxytocin: The love hormone".Harvard Health.2021-07-20.Retrieved2023-11-01.
  127. ^Zak PJ, Stanton AA, Ahmadi S (November 2007). Brosnan S (ed.)."Oxytocin increases generosity in humans".PLOS ONE.2(11): e1128.Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2.1128Z.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001128.PMC2040517.PMID17987115.
  128. ^Conlisk J (2011). "Professor Zak's empirical studies on trust and oxytocin".J Econ Behav Organizat.78(1–2): 160–66.doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2011.01.002.
  129. ^Domes G, Heinrichs M, Michel A, Berger C, Herpertz SC (March 2007). "Oxytocin improves" mind-reading "in humans".Biological Psychiatry.61(6): 731–733.doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.015.PMID17137561.S2CID3125539.
  130. ^Guastella AJ, Mitchell PB, Dadds MR (January 2008). "Oxytocin increases gaze to the eye region of human faces".Biological Psychiatry.63(1): 3–5.doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.06.026.PMID17888410.S2CID11974058.
  131. ^Singer T, Snozzi R, Bird G, Petrovic P, Silani G, Heinrichs M, et al. (December 2008)."Effects of oxytocin and prosocial behavior on brain responses to direct and vicariously experienced pain".Emotion.8(6): 781–791.doi:10.1037/a0014195.PMC2672051.PMID19102589.
  132. ^Wittig RM, Crockford C, Deschner T, Langergraber KE, Ziegler TE, Zuberbühler K (March 2014)."Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees".Proceedings. Biological Sciences.281(1778): 20133096.doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.3096.PMC3906952.PMID24430853.
  133. ^abKosfeld M, Heinrichs M, Zak PJ, Fischbacher U, Fehr E (June 2005)."Oxytocin increases trust in humans".Nature.435(7042): 673–676.Bibcode:2005Natur.435..673K.doi:10.1038/nature03701.PMID15931222.S2CID1234727.
  134. ^abTheodoridou A, Rowe AC, Penton-Voak IS, Rogers PJ (June 2009). "Oxytocin and social perception: oxytocin increases perceived facial trustworthiness and attractiveness".Hormones and Behavior.56(1): 128–132.doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.03.019.PMID19344725.S2CID12639878.
  135. ^abLane A, Luminet O, Rimé B, Gross JJ, de Timary P, Mikolajczak M (2013). "Oxytocin increases willingness to socially share one's emotions".International Journal of Psychology.48(4): 676–681.doi:10.1080/00207594.2012.677540.PMID22554106.
  136. ^abCardoso C, Ellenbogen MA, Serravalle L, Linnen AM (November 2013). "Stress-induced negative mood moderates the relation between oxytocin administration and trust: evidence for the tend-and-befriend response to stress?".Psychoneuroendocrinology.38(11): 2800–2804.doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.05.006.PMID23768973.S2CID25090544.
  137. ^Carey B (2005-06-02)."Hormone Dose May Increase People's Trust in Strangers".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.Retrieved2022-07-22.
  138. ^Baumgartner T, Heinrichs M, Vonlanthen A, Fischbacher U, Fehr E (May 2008)."Oxytocin shapes the neural circuitry of trust and trust adaptation in humans".Neuron.58(4): 639–650.doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.04.009.PMID18498743.S2CID1432797.
  139. ^Kosfeld M, Heinrichs M, Zak PJ, Fischbacher U, Fehr E (June 2005)."Oxytocin increases trust in humans".Nature.435(7042): 673–676.Bibcode:2005Natur.435..673K.doi:10.1038/nature03701.PMID15931222.S2CID1234727.
  140. ^Tabak BA, McCullough ME, Carver CS, Pedersen EJ, Cuccaro ML (June 2014)."Variation in oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) polymorphisms is associated with emotional and behavioral reactions to betrayal".Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience.9(6): 810–816.doi:10.1093/scan/nst042.PMC4040089.PMID23547247.
  141. ^abMarazziti D, Dell'Osso B, Baroni S, Mungai F, Catena M, Rucci P, et al. (October 2006)."A relationship between oxytocin and anxiety of romantic attachment".Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health.2(1): 28.doi:10.1186/1745-0179-2-28.PMC1621060.PMID17034623.
  142. ^Shalvi S, De Dreu CK (April 2014)."Oxytocin promotes group-serving dishonesty".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.111(15): 5503–5507.Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.5503S.doi:10.1073/pnas.1400724111.PMC3992689.PMID24706799.
  143. ^Scheele D, Striepens N, Güntürkün O, Deutschländer S, Maier W, Kendrick KM, et al. (November 2012)."Oxytocin modulates social distance between males and females".The Journal of Neuroscience.32(46): 16074–16079.doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2755-12.2012.PMC6794013.PMID23152592.
  144. ^Malik AI, Zai CC, Abu Z, Nowrouzi B, Beitchman JH (July 2012)."The role of oxytocin and oxytocin receptor gene variants in childhood-onset aggression".Genes, Brain and Behavior.11(5): 545–551.doi:10.1111/j.1601-183X.2012.00776.x.PMID22372486.S2CID38807759.
  145. ^Zak PJ, Kurzban R, Matzner WT (December 2004). "The neurobiology of trust".Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.1032(1): 224–227.Bibcode:2004NYASA1032..224Z.doi:10.1196/annals.1314.025.PMID15677415.S2CID45599465.
  146. ^Buemann B, Marazziti D, Uvnäs-Moberg K (June 2021)."Can intravenous oxytocin infusion counteract hyperinflammation in COVID-19 infected patients?".The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry.22(5): 387–398.doi:10.1080/15622975.2020.1814408.PMID32914674.S2CID221623635.
  147. ^Gouin JP, Carter CS, Pournajafi-Nazarloo H, Glaser R, Malarkey WB, Loving TJ, et al. (August 2010)."Marital behavior, oxytocin, vasopressin, and wound healing".Psychoneuroendocrinology.35(7): 1082–1090.doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.01.009.PMC2888874.PMID20144509.
  148. ^Nakajima M, Görlich A, Heintz N (October 2014)."Oxytocin modulates female sociosexual behavior through a specific class of prefrontal cortical interneurons".Cell.159(2): 295–305.doi:10.1016/j.cell.2014.09.020.PMC4206218.PMID25303526.
  149. ^Heinrichs M, Baumgartner T, Kirschbaum C, Ehlert U (December 2003). "Social support and oxytocin interact to suppress cortisol and subjective responses to psychosocial stress".Biological Psychiatry.54(12): 1389–1398.doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00465-7.PMID14675803.S2CID20632786.
  150. ^Matsushita H, Latt HM, Koga Y, Nishiki T, Matsui H (October 2019). "Oxytocin and Stress: Neural Mechanisms, Stress-Related Disorders, and Therapeutic Approaches".Neuroscience.417:1–10.doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.07.046.PMID31400490.S2CID199527439.
  151. ^Wei D, Lee D, Cox CD, Karsten CA, Peñagarikano O, Geschwind DH, et al. (November 2015)."Endocannabinoid signaling mediates oxytocin-driven social reward".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.112(45): 14084–14089.Bibcode:2015PNAS..11214084W.doi:10.1073/pnas.1509795112.PMC4653148.PMID26504214.
  152. ^Lerer E, Levi S, Salomon S, Darvasi A, Yirmiya N, Ebstein RP (October 2008)."Association between the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene and autism: relationship to Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales and cognition".Molecular Psychiatry.13(10): 980–988.doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4002087.PMID17893705.S2CID19513481.
  153. ^Chang WH, Lee IH, Chen KC, Chi MH, Chiu NT, Yao WJ, et al. (September 2014). "Oxytocin receptor gene rs53576 polymorphism modulates oxytocin-dopamine interaction and neuroticism traits--a SPECT study".Psychoneuroendocrinology.47:212–220.doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.05.020.PMID25001970.S2CID22163043.
  154. ^abBurtis CA, Ashwood ER, Bruns DE (2012).Tietz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics(5th ed.).Elsevier Health Sciences.p. 1833.ISBN978-1-4557-5942-2.
  155. ^"WHO International Standard OXYTOCIN 4th International Standard NIBSC code: 76/575: Instructions for use (Version 4.0, Dated 30/04/2013)"(PDF).Nibsc.org.Retrieved5 March2022.
  156. ^Lee AG, Cool DR, Grunwald WC, Neal DE, Buckmaster CL, Cheng MY, et al. (August 2011)."A novel form of oxytocin in New World monkeys".Biology Letters.7(4): 584–587.doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.0107.PMC3130245.PMID21411453.
  157. ^Vargas-Pinilla P, Paixão-Côrtes VR, Paré P, Tovo-Rodrigues L, Vieira CM, Xavier A, et al. (January 2015)."Evolutionary pattern in the OXT-OXTR system in primates: coevolution and positive selection footprints".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.112(1): 88–93.Bibcode:2015PNAS..112...88V.doi:10.1073/pnas.1419399112.PMC4291646.PMID25535371.
  158. ^Ren D, Lu G, Moriyama H, Mustoe AC, Harrison EB, French JA (2015)."Genetic diversity in oxytocin ligands and receptors in New World monkeys".PLOS ONE.10(5): e0125775.Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1025775R.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0125775.PMC4418824.PMID25938568.
  159. ^Moriyama E, Kataoka H (2015-06-30)."Automated Analysis of Oxytocin by On-Line in-Tube Solid-Phase Microextraction Coupled with Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry".Chromatography.2(3): 382–391.doi:10.3390/chromatography2030382.ISSN2227-9075.
  160. ^Wang L, Marti DW, Anderson RE (August 2019)."Development and Validation of a Simple LC-MS Method for the Quantification of Oxytocin in Dog Saliva".Molecules.24(17): 3079.doi:10.3390/molecules24173079.PMC6749683.PMID31450590.
  161. ^Franke AA, Li X, Menden A, Lee MR, Lai JF (January 2019)."Oxytocin analysis from human serum, urine, and saliva by orbitrap liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry".Drug Testing and Analysis.11(1): 119–128.doi:10.1002/dta.2475.PMC6349498.PMID30091853.
  162. ^Du Vigneaud V, Ressler C, Swan JM, Roberts CW, Katsoyannis PG (1954). "The Synthesis of Oxytocin".Journal of the American Chemical Society.76(12): 3115–21.doi:10.1021/ja01641a004.
  163. ^"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1955".Nobelprize.org.Nobel Media AB.Retrieved17 November2016.
  164. ^Leng G, Brown CH, Russell JA (April 1999). "Physiological pathways regulating the activity of magnocellular neurosecretory cells".Progress in Neurobiology.57(6): 625–655.doi:10.1016/s0301-0082(98)00072-0.PMID10221785.S2CID240663.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
  • Media related toOxytocinat Wikimedia Commons
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&oldid=1235017520"