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Oirats

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This article is about the Oirat ethnic group. For the obsolete term for the Turkic Altays, seeAltay people.
Oirats
The location of theFour Oirat
Total population
655,372
Regions with significant populations
China
(mainly inXin gian g)		250,000 (2013 estimate)
Mongolia205,000 (2010 census)
Russia183,372 (2010 census)
Kyrgyzstan12,000 (2018)
Other5,000 (2020)
Languages
Mainly:Oirat,Russian,otherMongolian languages
Regional:Chinese
Religion
Tibetan Buddhism,Mongolian shamanism,Islam[1]
Related ethnic groups
Kalmyksand otherMongol peoples,Tuvans

Oirats(Mongolian:Ойрад,Oirad,Mongolian pronunciation:[ɔiˈrɑt]) orOirds(Ойрд,Oird;Kalmyk:Өөрд;Chinese:Ngoã Lạt,Wǎlà/Wǎlā), also formerlyElutsandEleuths(Chinese:Ách lỗ đặc,Èlǔtè),[2][3]are the westernmost group of theMongolswhose ancestral home is in theAltairegion ofSiberia,Xin gian gand westernMongolia.

The first documented reference toElutandYelutwas in the Onginsk "rune" inscriptions dated in the sixth century.[4]Historically, the Oirats were composed of four major tribes:Dzungar(Choros orOlots/Elut/Yelut/Èlǔtè),Torghut,DörbetandKhoshut.

The political elite of theRouranandTobgachempires wereYELÜ-T Mongolic speakers. Although these two empires encompassed multilingual populations, the language of diplomacy, trade, and culture was an ÖLÜ (YELÜ) dialect of ancient Mongolic descent.[4]When the Tobgach destroyed the Rouran Empire, the Mongolic-speaking Avar people escaped into the Caspian steppes.[4]

This displacement triggered a series of events. Settling in the Caucasus around 558, the Mongolic Avars intervened in Germanic tribal conflicts, forming alliances such as with the Lombards to overthrow the Gepidae, who were Byzantine allies.[5]Between 550 and 575, they solidified their presence by establishing the Khanate of the Mongolic Avars (6th to 8th century) in the Caspian and Hungarian steppes.[5]

The modernKalmyksofKalmykiaon the Caspian Sea in southeastern Europe are Oirats.

Etymology

[edit]
TheMongol Empirec. 1207
A fragment of a medieval Oirat map

The name derives fromMongolicoi< *hoi( "forest, woods" ) andard< *harad( "people" ),[6]and they were counted among the "forest people"in the 13th century.[7]Similar to that is theTurkicağaç eri( "woodman" ) that is found as a tribal name such asAkatziri,an ancient tribe among EuropeanHuns,and as a place name in many locales, including the corrupted name of the town ofAghajariin Iran. A second opinion believes the name derives from Mongolian wordoirt(oroirkhon) meaning "close (as in distance)," as in "close/nearer ones."

The name Oirat may derive from a corruption of the group's original nameDörben Öörd,meaning "The Allied Four". Perhaps inspired by the designation Dörben Öörd, other Mongols at times used the term "Döchin Mongols" for themselves ( "Döchin" meaning forty), but there was rarely as great a degree of unity among larger numbers of tribes as among the Oirats.

Writing system

[edit]
Main articles:Zaya PanditaandClear Script

In the 17th century,Zaya Pandita,[8]aGelugmonk of theKhoshuttribe, devised a new writing system calledClear Scriptfor use by Oirats. This system was developed on the basis of the olderMongolian script,but had a more developed system ofdiacriticsto preclude misreading and reflected some lexical and grammatical differences of theOirat languagefromMongolian.[9]

The Clear Script remained in use inKalmykiauntil the mid-1920s when it was replaced by aLatin Alpha bet,and later theCyrillic script.It can be seen in some public signs in the Kalmyk capital,Elista,and is superficially taught in schools. In Mongolia it was likewise replaced by the Cyrillic Alpha bet in 1941. Some Oirats inChinastill use the Clear Script as their primary writing system, as well as Mongolian script.

A monument of Zaya Pandita was unveiled on the 400th anniversary of Zaya Pandita's birth, and on 350th anniversary of his creation of the Clear Script.[10]

History

[edit]
See also:Timeline of the Oirats

The Oirats share some history, geography, culture and language with theEastern Mongols,and were at various times united under the same leader as a larger Mongol entity, whether that ruler was of Oirat descent or ofChingissids.

Comprising theKhoshut(Mongolian:"хошууд",hošuud), Choros or Ölöt ( "өөлд",Ööld),Torghut( "торгууд",Torguud), andDörbet( "дөрвөд",Dörvöd) ethnic groups, they were dubbed Kalmyk or Kalmak, which means "remnant" or "to remain", by their westernTurkicneighbours. Various sources also list theBargut,Buzava,Keraites,andNaimantribes as comprising part of the Dörben Öörd; some tribes may have joined the original four only in later years. This name may however reflect the Kalmyks'remainingBuddhistrather than converting toIslam;or the Kalmyks'remainingin theAltayregion when the Turkic tribes migrated further west.

After the fall of theYuan dynasty,Oirat and Eastern Mongols had developed separate identities to the point where Oirats called themselves "Four Oirats" while they used the term "Mongols" for those under theKhagansin the east.[11]

Early history

[edit]
Main article:Oirat Confederation
The Oirat rulerArghun Aqa(damaged) inTārīkh-i Jahān-Gushā'The History of The World Conqueror ", dated 1290. Suppl. Pers. 205 - Bibliothèque Nationale de France.[12][13]

One of the earliest mentions of the Oirat people, in a historical text, can be found in theSecret History of the Mongols,a 13th century chronicle ofGenghis Khan's rise to power. In “The Secret History”, the Oirats are counted among the "forest people", and are said to live under the rule of a shaman-chief known asbäki.They lived inTuvaand the MongolianKhövsgöl Province;the Oirats moved south in the 14th century.[14]

In one famous passage, the Oirat chiefQutuqa Bekiused ayada,or 'thunder stone', to unleash a powerful storm on Genghis' army. The magical ploy backfired, however, when an unexpected wind blew the storm back towards him. During the early stages of Genghis' rise to power, the Oirats under Bäki fought against Genghis but were defeated. The Oirats would then fully submit to Mongol rule after their ally,Jamukha,Genghis' childhood friend and later rival, was killed.

Subject to theKhan,the Oirats turned themselves into a loyal and formidable faction of the Mongol war machine. In 1207,Jochi,the eldest son of Genghis, subjugated the forest tribes, including the Oirats and theYenisei Kyrgyz;theGreat Khangave those peoples to his son, Jochi, and had one of his daughters, Checheygen, marry chief Bäki (or his son). There were notable Oirats in theMongol Empire,such asArghun Aghaand his son,Nowruz.

In 1256, a group of the Oirats under Bukha-Temür (Mongolian: Буха-Төмөр, Бөхтөмөр) joinedHulagu's expedition against the Abbasidsand participated in theMongol campaign against the Nizarisin Iran. TheIlkhanHulagu and his successor,Abagha,resettled them in Turkey. Then, they took part in theSecond Battle of Homs,where the Mongols were defeated.[15]The majority of the Oirats, who were left behind, supportedAriq BökeagainstKublaiin theToluid Civil War.Kublai defeated his younger brother, and they entered the service of the victor.[16]

In 1295, more than 10,000 Oirats under Targhai Khurgen, son-in-law of theBorjiginfamily, fledSyria,then under theMamluks,as they were despised by bothMuslim Mongolsand localTurks.They were well-received byEgypt’sSultan,Al-Adil Kitbugha,himself of Oirat origin.[17]Ali Pasha, the governor ofBaghdadand head of an Oirat ruling family, went on to murder IlkhanArpa Keun,resulting in the disintegration of Mongol Persia. Since the Oirats were near both theChagatai Khanateand theGolden Horde,they had strong ties with them, and many Mongol khans had Oirat wives.

After the expulsion of theYuan dynastyfrom China, the Oirats reconvened as a loose alliance of the four major western Mongolian tribes (Mongolian:дөрвөн ойрд,дөрвөн ойрaд). The alliance grew, taking power in the remote region of theAltai Mountains,northwest ofHami oasis.Gradually, they spread eastwards, anne xing territories then under the control of the Eastern Mongols. They hoped to reestablish a unified, nomadic rule under their banner of the Four Oirats (the Keraites, Naiman, Barghud, and old Oirats).[18][19]

The only Borjigid ruling tribe was the Khoshuts; the others' rulers were not descendants of Genghis. TheMing dynastyof China had helped the Oirats' rise over the Mongols during the Yongle Emperor's reign after 1410, when the Ming defeated the QubilaidÖljei Temürand the Borjigid power was weakened.[20]The Borjigid Khans were displaced from power by the Oirats (with Ming help), ruling as puppet-khans until the alliance between the Ming and Oirats ended, and the Yongle Emperor launched a campaign against them.[21]

The greatest ruler of the Oirat Confederacy wasEsen Taishi;he led the Oirats from 1438 to 1454, a time in which he unified Mongolia (both Inner and Outer) under his puppet-khanTaisun Khan.In 1449, Esen Tayisi and Taisun Khan mobilised their cavalry along the Chinese border and invadedMing China,defeating and destroying the Ming defences at theGreat Wall,along with the reinforcements sent to intercept his cavalry. In the process, theZhengtong Emperorwas captured atTumu.The following year, Esen returned the emperor after an unsuccessful ransom attempt. After claiming the title of Khan (something which only blood descendants of Genghis Khan could do), Esen was killed; shortly afterwards, Oirat power declined.

From the 14th until the middle of the 18th century, the Oirats were often at war with theEastern Mongols,but reunited with them during the rule ofDayan KhanandTümen Zasagt Khan.

The Khoshut Khanate

[edit]
Main article:Khoshut Khanate
See also:Upper Mongols
Tayiji (prince) of theTorghuts,one of the main Oirat tribes, and his wife ( thổ ngươi hỗ đặc đài cát ).Huang Qing Zhigong Tu,1769.

The Oirats converted toTibetan Buddhismaround 1615, and it was not long before they participated in the conflict between theGelugandKarma Kagyuschools. At the request of the Gelug school, in 1637,Güshi Khan,the leader of theKhoshutsin Koko Nor, defeatedChoghtu Khong Tayiji,the Khalkha prince who supported the Karma Kagyu school, and conqueredAmdo(present-dayQinghai). The unification ofTibetfollowed in the early 1640s, with Güshi Khan proclaimed Khan of Tibet by the5th Dalai Lamaand the establishment of theKhoshut Khanate.The title "Dalai Lama"itself was bestowed upon the third lama of the Gelugtulkulineage byAltan Khan(not to be confused with theAltan Khans of the Khalkha), and means, in Mongolian, "Ocean of Wisdom".

Amdo, meanwhile, became home to the Khoshuts. In 1717, theDzungarsinvaded Tibet and killedLha-bzang Khan(orKhoshut Khan), a grandson of Güshi Khan and the fourth Khan of Tibet, and conquered theKhoshut Khanate.

The Zunghar Khanate at 1750 (light-blue color)

The Qing Empire defeated theDzungarsin the 1750s and proclaimed rule over the Oirats through a Manchu-Mongol alliance (a series of systematic arranged marriages between princes and princesses of Manchu with those of Khalkha Mongols and Oirat Mongols, which was set up as a royal policy carried out over 300 years), as well as over Khoshut-controlled Tibet.

In 1723 Lobzang Danjin, another descendant of Güshi Khan, took control of Amdo and tried to assume rule over the Khoshut Khanate. He fought against a Manchu-Qing Dynastyarmy, and was defeated only in the following year and 80,000 people from his tribe were executed by Manchu army due to his "rebellion attempt".[22]By that period, the Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000 and were mainly under the rule of Khalkha Mongol princes who were in a marital alliance with Manchu royal and noble families. Thus, Amdo fell under Manchu domination.

The Dzungar Khanate

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Main article:Dzungar Khanate
This map fragment shows territories of theZunghar Khanateas in 1706 (Map Collection of the Library of Congress: "Carte de Tartarie" of Guillaume de L'Isle (1675–1726)).

The 17th century saw the rise of another Oirat empire in the east, known as the Khanate ofDzungaria,which stretched from theGreat Wall of Chinato present-day easternKazakhstan,and from present-day northernKyrgyzstanto southernSiberia.It was the last empire ofnomads,and was ruled byChorosnoblemen.

TheTransition from Ming to Qingdynasties inChinaoccurred in the mid-17th century, and the Qing sought to protect its northern border by continuing the divide-and-rule policy theirMingpredecessors had successfully instituted against the Mongols. The Manchu consolidated their rule over the Eastern Mongols ofManchuria.They then persuaded the Eastern Mongols of Inner Mongolia to submit themselves asvassals.Finally, the Eastern Mongols of Outer Mongolia sought the protection of the Manchu against the Dzungars.

In the 17th century, the Dzungar pioneered the local manifestation of the ‘Military Revolution’ in central Eurasia after perfecting a process of manufacturing indigenously created gunpowder weapons. They also created a mixed agro-pastoral economy, as well as complementary mining and manufacturing industries on their lands. Additionally, the Zunghar managed to enact an empire-wide system of laws and policies to boost the use of the Oirat language in the region.[23]

Some scholars estimate that about 80% of theDzungar populationwaswiped out by a combination of warfare and disease during the Manchu Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1755–1757.[24]The Zunghar population reached 600,000 in 1755.

Most of the Choros,Olot,Khoid,Baatud,andZakhchinOirats who battled against the Qing were killed by Manchu soldiers and, after the fall of theDzungar Khanate,became small ethnic groups.

Kalmyks

[edit]
Main articles:Kalmyks,Kalmyk Khanate,andKalmykia

Kalmyks live on the Caspian steppe. Their settlement and relationship with the Caspian steppes has a long history.

In early medieval times, the Mongolic-speaking Elut people established here a powerful khanate of the Avar Elut in the sixth century.[5]The first documented reference toElutandYelut(Chinese:Ách lỗ đặc,Èlǔtè) was in the Onginsk "rune" inscriptions dated in the sixth century.[4]

In early modern times,Kho Orlok,tayishi of theTorghuts,and Dalai Tayishi ofDorbets,led their people (200,000–250,000 people, mainly Torghuts) west to the (Volga River) in 1607 where they established the Kalmyk Khanate. By some accounts this move was precipitated by internal divisions or by the Khoshut tribe; other historians believe it more likely that the migrating clans were seeking pastureland for their herds, scarce in the central Asian highlands. Some of the Khoshut and Ölöt tribes joined the migration almost a century later. The Kalmyk migration had reached as far as the steppes of southeastern Europe by 1630. At the time, that area was inhabited by theNogai Horde.But under pressure from Kalmyk warriors, theNogaisfled toCrimeaand theKuban River.Many other nomadic peoples in the Eurasian steppes subsequently became vassals of the Kalmyk Khanate, part of which is in the area of present-dayKalmykia.[25]

TheKalmyksbecame allies ofRussiaand a treaty to protect southern Russian borders was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. Later they became nominal, then full subjects of the Russian Tsar. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control ofRussia.By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians.[citation needed]Russia gradually reduced the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. Policies encouraged establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures where the Kalmyks formerly roamed and fed their livestock. TheRussian Orthodox church,by contrast, pressedBuddhistKalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771 the oppression of czarist administration forced a larger part of Kalmyks (33,000 households or approximately 170,000 individuals) to migrate to Dzungaria.[26]

200,000 (170,000)[27]Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of theVolga Riverto Dzungaria, through the territories of theirBashkirandKazakhenemies. The last Kalmyk khanUbashiled the migration to restore theDzungar Khanateand Mongolian independence.[27]As C. D. Barkman notes, "It is quite clear that the Torghuts had not intended to surrender to the Chinese, but had hoped to lead an independent existence in Dzungaria".[28]Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalry to theRusso-Turkish Warin 1768–1769 to gain weapons before the migration. The EmpressCatherine the Greatordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and Catherine the Great abolished the Kalmyk Khanate.[27][29][30]

The Kazakhs attacked them nearBalkhash Lake.About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of theVolga Rivercould not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed their influential nobles.[27]After seven months of travel, only one third (66,073)[27]of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of the Manchu Qing Empire).[31]The Qing Empire resettled the Kalmyks in five different areas to prevent their revolt and several Kalmyk leaders were soon killed by the Manchus. Following the Russian revolution their settlement was accelerated, Buddhism stamped out and herds collectivised.

Kalmykiannationalistsand Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate from Kalmykia to Mongolia in the 1920s when a serious famine gripped Kalmykia. On January 22, 1922, Mongolia proposed to accept the immigration of the Kalmyks but the Russian government refused. Some 71–72,000 (around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the famine.[32]The Kalmyks revolted against Russia in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. In March 1927, Soviets deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, andKarelia.[32]The Kalmyks founded the sovereignRepublic of Oirat-Kalmykon March 22, 1930. The Oirat state had a small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated a force of 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia, but the Oirat state was destroyed by the Soviet Army later that year. The Mongolian government suggested to accept the Mongols of the Soviet Union, including Kalmyks, but the Soviets rejected the proposal.[32]

In 1943, the entire population of 120,000 Kalmyks weredeportedto Siberia byStalin,accused of supporting invading Axis armies attackingStalingrad(Volgograd); a fifth of the population is thought to have perished during and immediately after the deportation.[33][34][35]Around half (97–98,000) of the Kalmyk people deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957.[36]The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching theKalmyk languageduring the deportation.[37][38][39]MongolianleaderKhorloogiin Choibalsanattempted to arrange migration of the deportees to Mongolia and he met them inSiberiaduring his visit to Russia. Under the Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples" repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as an act ofgenocide,although many Russian historians[who?]treat this and similar deportations as an attempt to prevent local Russian populations and the Soviet army from lynching the entire ethnic group, many of whomsupported Germany.Today Kalmyks are trying to revive their language and religion, but the shift towards the Russian language continues.[citation needed]

According to theRussian 2010 Censusthere were 176,800 Kalmyks, of whom only 80,546 could speak the Kalmyk language, a serious decline from the level of the2002 Census,in which the number of speakers was 153,602 (with a total number of 173,996 people). TheSoviet 1989 Censusshowed 156,386 Kalmyk-speakers with a total number of 173,821 Kalmyks.

Xin gian g Mongols

[edit]
Oirat ceremonial hat

The Mongols ofXin gian gform a minority, principally in the northern part of the region, numbering 194,500 in 2010, about 50,000 of which areDongxiangs.[40]They are primarily descendants of the survivingTorghutsandKhoshutswho returned fromKalmykia,and of theChakharstationed there as garrison soldiers in the 18th century. The emperor had sent messages asking the Kalmyks to return, and erected a smaller copy of thePotalainJehol(Chengde), (the country residence of theManchu Emperors) to mark their arrival. A model copy of that "Little Potala" was made in China for theSwedishexplorerSven Hedin,and was erected at theWorld's Columbian ExpositioninChicagoin 1893. It is now in storage inSweden,where there are plans to re-erect it. Some of the returnees did not come that far and still live, now as Muslims, at the southwestern end of LakeIssyk-kulin present-dayKyrgyzstan.

In addition to exiling Han criminals to Xin gian g to be slaves of the Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) toChina properwhere they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou.[41]In the 1780s after the Muslim rebellion in Gansu started byZhang Wenqing( trương văn khánh ) was defeated, Muslims likeMa Jinlu( mã tiến lộc ) were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers.[42]The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and slavery under Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper.[43]

Alasha Mongols

[edit]

The region borderingGansuand west of the Irgay River[where?]is calledAlxaor Alaša, Alshaa and Mongols who moved there are called Alasha Mongols.

TörbaihGüshi Khan's fourth son, Ayush, was opposed to the Khan's brother Baibagas. Ayush's eldest son is Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli. After the battle betweenGaldan Boshigt Khanand Ochirtu Sechen Khan, Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli moved toTsaidamwith his 10,000 households. The fifthDalai Lamawanted land for them from theQinggovernment, thus in 1686, the Emperor permitted them to reside in Alasha.

In 1697, Alasha Mongols were administered in 'khoshuu' and 'sum' units. A khoshuu with eight sums was created, Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli was appointed Beil (prince), and Alasha was thus a 'zasag-khoshuu'. Alasha was however like an 'aimag' and never administered under a 'chuulgan'.

In 1707, when Batur Erkh Jonon Khoroli died, his son Abuu succeeded him. He was inBeijingfrom his youth, served as bodyguard of the Emperor, and a princess (of the Emperor) was given to him, thus making him a 'Khoshoi Tavnan', i.e. Emperor's groom. In 1793, Abuu became Jün Wang. There are several thousand Muslim Alasha Mongols.[44]

Ejine Mongols

[edit]

Mongols who lived along theEjin River(Ruo Shui) descended from Rabjur, a grandson of Torghut Ayuka Khan from the Volga River.

In 1698, Rabjur, with his mother, younger sister and 500 people, went to Tibet to pray. While they were returning via Beijing in 1704, the Qing ruler, theKangxi Emperor,let them stay there for some years and later organized a 'khoshuu' for them in a place called Sertei, and made Rabjur the governor.

In 1716, theKangxi Emperorsent him and his people toHami,near the border of Qing China and the Zunghar Khanate, for intelligence-gathering purposes against the Oirats. When Rabjur died, his eldest son, Denzen, succeeded him. He was afraid of the Zunghar and wanted the Qing government to allow them to move away from the border. They were settled in Dalan Uul–Altan. When Denzen died in 1740, his son Lubsan Darjaa succeeded him and became Beil.

In 1753, they were settled on the banks of the Ejin River and the Ejin River Torghut 'khoshuu' was thus formed.[45]

Culture

[edit]
Further information on the Mongol folk song:Bumburjan

Origins and genetics

[edit]

Haplogroup C2*-Star Cluster which was thought to be carried by likely male-line descendants of Genghis Khan and Niruns (original Mongols and descendants ofAlan Gua) appears in only 1.6% of Oirats.[46]

The Y-chromosome in 426 individuals mainly from three major tribes of the Kalmyks (theTorghut,DörbetandKhoshut):[47]

C-M48:38.7

C-M407: 10.8

N1c: 10.1

R2:7.7

O2:6.8

C2 (not M407, not M48): 6.6

O1b:5.2

R1:4.9

Others: 9.2

Haplogroup C2*-Star Cluster appeared in only 2% (3% of Dörbet and 2.7% of the Torghut).

Tribes

[edit]

Sart Kalmyks andXin gian gOirats are not Volga Kalmyks or Kalmyks, and the Kalmyks are a subgroup of the Oirats.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^Minahan, James B. (10 February 2014).Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia.Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 209.ISBN9781610690188.
  2. ^Robert de Vaugondy〈 Châu Á đồ 〉Quốc lập Đài Loan lịch sử viện bảo tàng điển tàng võng
  3. ^Owen Lattimore,The Desert Road to Turkestan.(For Lattimore, Euleuths are "the great western group of tribes which marks in all probability a primitive racial cleavage" (p. 101 in the ca. 1929 edition). Lattimore further (p. 139 refers to Samuel Couling ofThe Encyclopaedia Sinica(1917), according to whom the spelling "Eleuth" was due to French missionaries, representing the sound of something likeÖlöt.Into Chinese, the same name was transcribed as (Pinyin: Elute; Mongolian:Olot).))
  4. ^abcdBougdaeva, Saglar (2024)."The Yelu Language of War and Peace: A Revised Oirad Translation of the Altai Runic Inscriptions (6th–9th centuries)".Central Asiatic Journal.66(1–2): 27–46.
  5. ^abc"Ancient genomes reveal origin and rapid trans-Eurasian migration of 7th century Avar elites".Retrieved2024-03-28.
  6. ^M.Sanjdorj, History of the Mongolian People's Republic, Volume I, 1966
  7. ^Quách chứa hoa (1984). "Ách lỗ đặc Mông Cổ lịch sử biến thiên trung một ít vấn đề".Social Sciences in Xin gian g(in Chinese) (03): 125–130.ISSN1009-5330.WikidataQ114696375.
  8. ^N. Yakhontova,The Mongolian and Oirat Translations of the Sutra of Golden Light,2006ArchivedMay 19, 2011, at theWayback Machine
  9. ^Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Masson, Vadim Mikhaĭlovich (2003).History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast: from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century.UNESCO. p. 169.ISBN978-92-3-103876-1.
  10. ^Bassin, Mark;Kelly, Catriona(2012).Soviet and Post-Soviet Identities.Cambridge University Press. p. 202.ISBN978-1-107-01117-5.
  11. ^Crossley 2006,p. 64.
  12. ^Jaber, Shady (2021)."The Paintings of al-Āthār al-Bāqiya of al-Bīrūnī: A Turning Point in Islamic Visual Representation"(PDF).Lebanese American University:Figure 5.
  13. ^Lane, George (1999)."Arghun Aqa: Mongol Bureaucrat".Iranian Studies.32(4): 459–482.doi:10.1080/00210869908701965.ISSN0021-0862.JSTOR4311297.Juvaini's depiction of Arghun AqaThe picture painted of the Mongol amir in theTārīkh-i Jahān-Gushādates from this period.
  14. ^History of Mongolia, Volume II, 2003
  15. ^Reuven Amitai Press,The Mongols and the Mamluks,p.94
  16. ^James Waterson, John Man.The Knights of Islam,p.205
  17. ^James Waterson, John Man.The Knights of Islam,p.205
  18. ^eds. Wezler, Hammerschmidt 1992,p. 194.
  19. ^Anglo-Mongolian Society 1983,p. 1.
  20. ^A Regional Handbook on Northwest China, Volume 1 1956,p. 53.
  21. ^"Islamic Culture".Deccan. 1 January 1971.Retrieved4 December2016– via Google Books.
  22. ^БУЦАЖ ИРЭЭГҮЙ МОНГОЛ АЙМГУУДArchived2013-11-15 at theWayback Machine(Mongolian)
  23. ^Haines, Spencer (2017). "The 'Military Revolution' Arrives on the Central Eurasian Steppe: The Unique Case of the Zunghar (1676 - 1745)".Mongolica: An International Journal of Mongolian Studies.51:170–185.
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Further reading

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