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Pakistani nationality law

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The Pakistan Citizenship Act, 1951
Constituent Assembly of Pakistan
  • An Act to provide for Pakistan citizenship
CitationAct No. II of 1951
Territorial extentPakistan
Enacted byConstituent Assembly of Pakistan
Enacted13 April 1951
Commenced13 April 1951
Related legislation
The Foreigners Act, 1946
Status:Amended

Pakistani nationality lawdetails the conditions by which a person is anationalofPakistan.The primary law governing these requirements is the Pakistan Citizenship Act, 1951, whichcame into forceon 13 April 1951.

With few exceptions, all individuals born in the country areautomatically citizens at birth.Foreign nationals maynaturaliseas Pakistani citizens after residing in the country for at least five years and showing proficiency in at least onevernacular language of Pakistan.Commonwealth citizenswho make a substantial financial investment in the state are eligible for a facilitated naturalisation process.

Pakistan was previouslyruled by the British Empireand local residents wereBritish subjectsandBritish protected persons.Although Pakistan gained independence in 1947 and Pakistanis no longer hold British nationality, they continue to have favoured status when residing in theUnited Kingdom;as Commonwealth citizens, Pakistanis are eligible to vote in UK elections and serve in public office there.

Terminology[edit]

The distinction between the meaning of the termscitizenshipandnationalityis not always clear in the English language and differs by country. Generally, nationality refers a person's legal belonging to anation stateand is the common term used in international treaties when referring to members of a state; citizenship refers to the set of rights and duties a person has in that nation.[1]In the Pakistani context, these terms are used interchangeably.[2]

National status within British India[edit]

See also:Indian nationality law

Company administration[edit]

See also:Company rule in India

TheEast India Companywas founded byroyal charterin 1600 and granted amonopolyon all English trade with Asia. Over the course of the 17th century, the company secured a strong commercial presence in theIndian subcontinentthrough trade inindigo dye,saltpeter,and Indian textiles. Operations became more lucrative as theMughal Empireentered into decline in the 18th century, giving the company opportunity to gain further advantages by intervening in regional politics. The vast financial resources of the firm and its superior military enabled it to defeat rival European trade companies and become the dominant power in India.[3]The company itself ruled as the direct governing body from 1757 to 1858, though sovereignty was often shared withthe Crown.Although legislation was enacted referencingBritish subjectsin India, no comprehensive nationality statute existed to define which persons were subjects, leaving the status of native Indians ambiguous throughout this period.[4]

Legislation passed in 1852 allowed foreigners residing in territory governed by the East India Company to naturalise as British subjects by application to the government. There was no minimum residence requirement and candidates simply needed approval from a relevant official. Theoath of allegianceadministered to successful applicants required them to swear loyal service to the company, as well as allegiance to theBritish monarch.[5]

Direct imperial rule[edit]

See also:British Raj,British subject,British protected person,andPrincely state

India was brought underdirect ruleof theBritish Empirein 1858. Territories were broadly divided between two political groupings: theprovinces of British India,which were administered by the British government, and theprincely states,which were areas ruled by local monarchs given limited autonomy in exchange for accepting British suzerainty. Provincial residents were British subjects,[6]while subjects of princely state rulers were consideredBritish protected personsinstead.[7]

Despite Britain'ssovereigntyover both types of holdings, domestic law in the United Kingdom treated the princely states as foreign territory. British protected persons were treated asaliensin the United Kingdom, but both Indian British subjects and protected persons could be issuedBritish Indian passports.Protected persons could not travel to the UK without first requesting permission, but were afforded the same consular protection as British subjects when travelling outside of the Empire. A person with connections both to directly governed portions of British India and one of the princely states could be a British subject and British protected person simultaneously.[8]

British nationality lawduring this time was uncodified and did not have a standard set of regulations,[9]relying instead on pastprecedentandcommon law.[10]Until the mid-19th century, it was unclear whether naturalisation rules in the United Kingdom were applicable in other parts of the Empire. Each colony had wide discretion in developing their own procedures and requirements for admitting foreigners as subjects.[11]Naturalisation in Britain was achieved through individualActs of Parliamentuntil 1844, when a more streamlined administrative process was introduced.[12]In 1847, theImperial Parliamentformalised a clear distinction between subjects who were naturalised in the UK and those who did so in other territories. Individuals who were naturalised in the UK were deemed to have received the status by imperial naturalisation, which was valid throughout the Empire. Those naturalised in colonies were said to have gone through local naturalisation and were given subject status valid only within the relevant territory.[13]For example, a subject locally naturalised inBengalwas a British subject there, but not inEnglandnorNew South Wales.Like protected persons, locally naturalised British subjects were still entitled to imperial protection when travelling outside of the Empire.[14]

The Imperial Parliament brought regulations for British subject status into codified statute law for the first time with passage of theBritish Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914.British subject status was standardised as a common nationality across the Empire.[15][16][17]This Act allowedDominionsand British India to grant subject status to aliens by imperial naturalisation, but did not prevent further grants of local naturalisation under local legislation.[18]The continued application of local naturalisation allowed British Indian authorities to avoid addingEnglish languagerequirements to the naturalisation process.[19]

Post-independence policies[edit]

Partition and transition[edit]

British India was partitionedinto two independent nations on 15 August 1947, theUnion of IndiaandDominion of Pakistan.[20]Pakistan transitionally retained theBritish sovereign as its head of statein the post-partition period, using its Dominion status as a deterrent against possible Indian incursion.[21]Pakistanis continued to be British subjects until independent Pakistan enacted its own nationality legislation.[22]Subjects of the princely states were previously considered British protected persons but lost that status when theIndian Independence Act 1947released those states from British vassalage. The states' subsequent accession to Pakistan meant that former protected persons became British subjects of Pakistan.[23]

British subject status was reformed under theBritish Nationality Act 1948.The Act abandoned the common nationality used across the Empire and redefined British subject to mean any citizen of a Commonwealth country. ACommonwealth citizenwas defined in this Act to have the same meaning. British subject/Commonwealth citizen status co-existed with the citizenship of each Commonwealth country. Because Pakistan had not enacted citizenship regulations by the time the 1948 Act took effect, Pakistanis (and citizens of all other Dominions without citizenship laws) were provisionally classed as "British subjects without citizenship".[24]

The partition resulted in large-scale population movements across the new borders separating Pakistan and India. Provisions in the Pakistan Citizenship Act, 1951 reflect this and provided a pathway for migrants to automatically acquire a status matching the country of their choice post-partition. Any individual domiciled in Pakistan automatically became a Pakistani citizen on 13 April 1951 if they were: born in Pakistan, born to at least one parent or grandparent who themself was born in Pakistan, born in India but domiciled in Pakistan, or naturalised as a British subject in Pakistan and had renounced their previous nationalities. Additionally, any other person who migrated to Pakistan from another part of the Indian subcontinent before the Act's commencement with the intention of permanently residing in Pakistan was granted citizenship.[25]

Commonwealth citizenship[edit]

See also:Commonwealth citizen

Commonwealth citizens initially continued to hold an automatic right to settle in the United Kingdom andIrelandafter 1949.[26][27]Non-white immigration into the UK was systemically discouraged, but strong economic conditions in Britain following the Second World War attracted an unprecedented wave of colonial migration.[28]In response, the British Parliament imposed immigration controls on any Commonwealth citizens originating from outside theBritish Islandswith theCommonwealth Immigrants Act 1962.[29]Ireland had continued to allow all British subjects free movement despite independence in 1922 as part of theCommon Travel Areaarrangement, but moved to mirror Britain's restriction in 1962 by limiting this ability only to people born on the islands ofGreat Britainor Ireland.[30][27]Britain somewhat relaxed these measures in 1971 for patrials, subjects whose parents or grandparents were born in the United Kingdom,[29]which gave effective preferential treatment to white Commonwealth citizens.[31]The UK later updated its nationality law to reflect the more modest boundaries of its remaining territory and overseas possessions with theBritish Nationality Act 1981,[32]which redefined the term "British subject" to no longer also include Commonwealth citizens.[33]

Under the 1951 Pakistan Citizenship Act, Commonwealth citizens were technically eligible to obtain Pakistani citizenship by registration in lieu of naturalisation, but no subsidiary legislation or regulations were published that made this pathway available. While Commonwealth citizens have a separate status within Pakistani nationality law, they are not distinguished from non-Commonwealth foreign nationals for other purposes, including immigration.[34]Following Pakistan's withdrawal from the Commonwealth in 1972, Pakistani citizens ceased to be Commonwealth citizens in British law after passage of the Pakistan Act 1973.[35]Pakistanis reacquired this status after the country rejoined the organisation in 1989.[36]As Commonwealth citizens, they are eligible to vote and stand for public office in the UK.[37]

Territorial change and subsequent reforms[edit]

Jammu and Kashmir[edit]

See also:Kashmir conflict

Jammu and Kashmirwas a princely state of British India with a local Hindu monarch who governed a population that was majority Muslim. This state initially remained independent at partition in 1947 but chose to join India later that year. The decision was unpopular among the local populace and triggered revolts organised by those who wanted the state to join Pakistan, leading to theIndo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948.Control of the state was split between the two sides by theLine of Controlafter the end of armed conflict, although both Pakistan and India claim sovereignty over the whole territory. Any person who migrated from the former princely state to permanently reside in Pakistan is a Pakistani citizen, as well as individuals considered to be Kashmiri subjects who hold Pakistani passports and reside overseas in the United Kingdom or any other country specified by the federal government.[38]

Loss of eastern territory[edit]

See also:Bangladeshi nationality lawandStranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh

At the time of partition, Pakistan includedEast Bengal,a noncontiguous territory separated from the rest of the country by India. Following the 1971Bangladesh Liberation War,Pakistan lost control of the region, which became independent asBangladesh.The Pakistan Citizenship (Amendment) Ordinance, 1978 addressed the new political situation and removed citizenship from Pakistani citizens who were resident in East Pakistan prior to separation and remained domiciled there after independence and from those who had been domiciled inWest Pakistanbut had migrated to Bangladesh after 1971. East Pakistanis who were resident overseas at the time of separation could elect to remain Pakistani citizens by obtaining a certificate of citizenship from the government.[39]

Bihari Muslims,a community of citizens who migrated to East Bengal from the Indian state ofBiharduring the partition of India, was particularly affected by Bangladeshi independence. This group largely did not support the division of Pakistan and refused to acquire Bangladeshi nationality, but did not have the resources to resettle in West Pakistan.[40]The vast majority of this minority group werestatelessuntil 2008, when theBangladesh High Courtruled that Biharis born in the country would be granted citizenship.[41]While about 170,000 Biharis have since been repatriated to Pakistan, more than 400,000 "stranded Pakistanis"remain resident in Bangladesh.[42]

Multiple citizenship[edit]

Restrictions on holding multiple nationalities were relaxed in 1972. Pakistani nationals who naturalise in the United Kingdom or any other country that the federal government specifies no longer automatically lose their Pakistani nationality. The government negotiates bilateral dual nationality treaties with participating states, which each separately agree with Pakistan that the nationals of either country are not required to renounce their nationality before naturalising in the other. Despite official sanction of holding alternate nationalities with a limited set of countries, dual nationals are constitutionally prohibited from serving in theParliament of Pakistan.Since 2013, they have also been barred from public office inPunjab.[43]

Refugee access to citizenship[edit]

Contrary to the 1951 Act's grant ofbirthright citizenshipto virtually all persons born in the country, children ofAfghan refugeeswho fled to Pakistan after the start of theSoviet–Afghan Warin 1979 have been routinely denied citizenship. Although these refugees were to be repatriated following agreement of the 1988Geneva Accords,the vast majority have remained in Pakistan due to ongoing instability in Afghanistan.[44]

Pakistani courts have offered conflicting opinions on the application of birthright citizenship. In the 1999 caseGhulam Sanai v. Assistant Director, National Registration Office,thePeshawar High Courtruled that the provisions for citizenship by birthplace and descent in the 1951 Act should be interpreted together in a correct reading of the law. The effect of this reinterpretation limited the application of birthright citizenship only to children born to at least one Pakistani parent.[45][46]TheIslamabad High Courtissued a contradictory judgement in 2018, ruling that a child of Somali refugees had acquired Pakistani citizenship by virtue of birth in Pakistan and that the 1951 Act should be interpreted as written rather than in the method prescribed by the Peshawar court,[47]along with a further ruling in 2022 that any person born in Pakistan was entitled to Pakistani citizenship.[48]There were 1.7 million undocumented Afghan refugees living in Pakistan without citizenship or residency in November 2023, when the government began amass deportation initiativeto expel all illegal migrants from the country.[49]

Acquisition and loss of citizenship[edit]

Entitlement by birth or descent[edit]

Any person born in Pakistan since 13 April 1951 automatically receives Pakistani citizenship by birth except if they are the child of a foreigndiplomator enemyalien.[50]Children born overseas are automatically Pakistani citizens by descent if either parent is a citizen otherwise than by descent or is employed by the government of Pakistan. Individuals born to parents who are citizens by descent only may alternatively acquire citizenship if their births are registered at aPakistani diplomatic mission.[51]Children born before 18 April 2000 were entitled to citizenship by descent through their fathers only. However, minor children of Pakistani mothers could apply for registration as citizens in a separate process that was subject to discretionary approval of the government.[52]

Voluntary acquisition[edit]

Foreigners over the age of 18 may become Pakistani citizens bynaturalisationafter residing in the country for at least four years within a seven-year period, followed by a further one year of residence immediately before application. Applicants must demonstrate proficiency in at least one of thelanguages of Pakistan,satisfy agood characterrequirement, intend to reside permanently in the country or begin service in the Pakistani government, and cannot hold citizenship of countries that bar Pakistani citizens from naturalisation.[53]Commonwealth citizens may alternatively acquire citizenship by registration with a financial investment in the country. After transferring 5,000,000Pakistani rupeesto theState Bank,investors receive an immigrant visa.[54]Citizenship is then granted on their arrival in Pakistan. Foreign women married to (and widows formerly married to) Pakistani men are entitled to apply for citizenship, provided that their husbands did not acquire citizenship by naturalisation or registration.[55]

Relinquishment and deprivation[edit]

Pakistani citizenship may be voluntarily relinquished by any person above age 18, provided that the applicant already holds (or has documentary assurance that they will soon acquire) another citizenship. Minor children of a father who gave up citizenship also cease to be citizens, unless they remained living in Pakistan at the time of their father's renunciation. Former citizens who renounced their status may subsequently apply to resume their Pakistani citizenship. There are no specific requirements for citizenship resumption other than making a written declaration to the government.[56]

Naturalised citizens may be involuntarily deprived of the status if they fraudulently acquired it, are sentenced to imprisonment for more than 12 months in any jurisdiction in the world, or they wilfully perform an act that constitutes a breach of loyalty to the state. Any citizen who continuously resides abroad for more than seven years are also subject to deprivation, unless they are employed by the government while overseas or have submitted a declaration of intent to retain citizenship at a Pakistani diplomatic mission.[57]

Although the Pakistan Citizenship Act, 1951 provides for the deprivation of citizenship from any Pakistani who becomes a citizen of another country, theLahore High Courthas ruled that this process is not automatic and does not apply unless acquiring the foreign citizenship is conditional on renouncing Pakistani citizenship.[58]Despite this lack of deprivation, Pakistan has concluded a series of bilateral agreements with other countries that explicitly allow dual nationality with the participating states.[59]The 21 countries that have such an arrangement with Pakistan are:Australia,Bahrain,Belgium,Canada,Denmark,Egypt,Finland,France,Germany,Iceland,Ireland,Italy,Jordan,theNetherlands,New Zealand,Norway,Sweden,Switzerland,Syria,theUnited Kingdom,and theUnited States.[60]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^Kondo 2001,pp. 2–3.
  2. ^Farhat 2019,pp. 60–61.
  3. ^Metcalf & Metcalf 2006,pp. 44–55.
  4. ^Ashesh & Thiruvengadam 2017,pp. 3–4.
  5. ^Indian Naturalisation Act 1852.
  6. ^Ashesh & Thiruvengadam 2017,p. 4.
  7. ^Jones 1945,p. 124.
  8. ^Jones 1945,pp. 127–128.
  9. ^Gosewinkel 2008,p. 13.
  10. ^Karatani 2003,p. 41.
  11. ^Karatani 2003,pp. 55–56.
  12. ^Bagnall & Sherratt 2021,p. 286.
  13. ^Historical background information on nationality,p. 8.
  14. ^Karatani 2003,p. 55.
  15. ^Baldwin 2001,pp. 527–528.
  16. ^Historical background information on nationality,p. 10.
  17. ^Ashesh & Thiruvengadam 2017,p. 5.
  18. ^Parry 1954,p. 102.
  19. ^Parry 1954,pp. 106–107.
  20. ^Pachauri 2010,p. 1135.
  21. ^Kumarasingham 2013,p. 224.
  22. ^Ansari 2013,p. 287.
  23. ^Parry 1954,p. 107.
  24. ^Wade 1948,pp. 69–70, 73.
  25. ^Nazir 2016,pp. 2–3.
  26. ^McKay 2008.
  27. ^abRyan 2001,p. 862.
  28. ^Hansen 1999,pp. 90, 94–95.
  29. ^abEvans 1972,pp. 508–509.
  30. ^Lloyd 1998,pp. 515–516.
  31. ^Paul 1997,p. 181.
  32. ^Paul 1997,pp. 182–183.
  33. ^Bloom 2011,p. 640.
  34. ^Toxley 1967,pp. 498–499.
  35. ^Lord Harris of Greenwich,Minister of State for Home Affairs,"Pakistan Bill".
  36. ^Tim Sainsbury,Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs,"Pakistan Bill Lords".
  37. ^Bloom 2011,p. 654.
  38. ^Nazir 2016,pp. 8–9.
  39. ^Nazir 2016,pp. 10–11.
  40. ^Nazir 2016,p. 11.
  41. ^"Bangladesh court rules that young Biharis are Bangladesh citizens".Reuters.18 May 2008.Archivedfrom the original on 14 November 2023.Retrieved13 November2023.
  42. ^Malik, Haanaat (30 March 2015)."Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh not Pakistan's responsibility, FO tells SC".The Express Tribune.Retrieved13 November2023.
  43. ^Nazir 2016,pp. 15–17.
  44. ^Nazir 2016,p. 5.
  45. ^Farhat 2019,pp. 65–66.
  46. ^Titshaw 2022,pp. 25–26.
  47. ^Farhat 2019,p. 66.
  48. ^"Hearing plea by Afghan refugee, Islamabad court says every Pakistan-born child has citizenship right".Arab News.20 October 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 14 November 2023.Retrieved14 November2023.
  49. ^Mukhtar, Ahmad (3 November 2023)."Pakistan begins mass deportation of Afghan refugees".CBS News.Archivedfrom the original on 16 November 2023.Retrieved21 November2023.
  50. ^Farhat 2019,pp. 65–67.
  51. ^Farhat 2019,p. 67.
  52. ^Farhat 2019,p. 68.
  53. ^Nazir 2016,p. 7.
  54. ^Nazir 2016,p. 8.
  55. ^Nazir 2016,p. 10.
  56. ^Farhat 2019,pp. 76–78.
  57. ^Farhat 2019,p. 75.
  58. ^Farhat 2019,p. 74.
  59. ^Chaudhry & Bilal 2020,p. 60.
  60. ^"Dual Nationality".Directorate General of Immigration & Passports.Archivedfrom the original on 14 November 2023.Retrieved13 November2023.

Sources[edit]

Publications[edit]

Parliamentary debates[edit]

Legislation[edit]

External links[edit]

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