Palenquero
| Palenquero | |
|---|---|
| Native to | Colombia |
| Region | San Basilio de Palenque |
| Ethnicity | 6,637 (2018)[1] |
Native speakers | 2,788 (2005)[2] |
Spanish Creole
| |
| Latin(Spanish Alpha bet) | |
| Official status | |
Official language in | TheColombianconstitution recognizes minority languages as "official in their territories."[3] |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | pln |
| Glottolog | pale1260 |
| ELP | Palenquero |
| Linguasphere | 51-AAC-bc |
 Map highlightingMahatesmunicipality, where Palenque is located | |
Palenquero(sometimes spelledPalenkero) orPalenque(Palenquero:Lengua) is aSpanish-based creole languagespoken inColombia.It is believed to be a mixture ofKikongo(a language spoken in central Africa in the current countries ofCongo,DRC,Gabon,andAngola,former member states ofKongo) and Spanish. However, there is not sufficient evidence to indicate that Palenquero is strictly the result of a two-language contact. It could also have absorbed elements of local indigenous languages.[4]
Palenquero is considered to be the only surviving Spanish-basedcreole languageinLatin America.[5]TypicallyPapiamento,which is often thought to be Portuguese-based, from this assessment.[clarification needed]In 2018 more than 6,600 people spoke this language.[1]
It is primarily spoken in the village ofSan Basilio de Palenque,which is southeast ofCartagena,and in some neighbourhoods ofBarranquilla.[6]
History
[edit] | This sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(November 2018) |
The formation of Palenquero is recorded from the17th centurywith the dilution of theSpanish languageand the increase ofmaroonactivity.[7]Existing records dating from the era of Cartagena’s slave trade allude to thepidginfrom which Palenquero evolved. As illustrated in the ethnographic text ofDe Instauranda Aethiopum Salute (1627),the priestAlonso de Sandovalrefers to the ‘corruption of our Spanish language’ commonly spoken amongst African slaves.[7]Palenquero's origins are unclear; it was not referred to in print until 1772.[7]
Palenque de San Basilio
[edit]Palenque de San Basilio orSan Basilio de Palenqueis the village from which Palenquero originated from and in which it is most commonly spoken in the 21st century.
The village was formed in the early 17th century to the south of Cartagena by fugitive slaves who escaped from surrounding districts, under the leadership ofBenkos Biohó.[6]The dissolution of the Spanish language intensified as maroons settled in armed fortified territories. The Palenqueros maintained their physical distance from ethnic Europeans as a form of anti-colonial resistance but they likely intermarried with indigenous women. They developed a creole based mostly on their own African languages and Spanish.
In the early 20th century, residents of this area were noted as having been bilingual in both Palenquero and Spanish. A 1913 document noted that residents of Palenque de San Basilio had a 'gutturaldialectthat some believe to be the very African language, if not in all its purity at least with some variations'.[8]
Decline
[edit]For almost two decades in the 21st century, Palenquero has been classified as anendangered language.Although it is spoken in parallel with Spanish, the latter has dominated the regular linguistic activity of Palenque de San Basilio. Some 53% of residents are unable to speak Palenquero.
The decline of Palenquero can be traced to the establishment of sugar and banana plantations. Many natives left the village in order to find work either in thePanama Canalor theDepartment of Magdalena.[6]There they came into contact with other languages. In the 20th century, with the introduction of a standard Spanish educational system, Spanish became the supra regional prescriptive speech, and Palenquero was often criticized and mocked.[9]
Racial discrimination against people of ethnic African descent added to the decline of Palenquero. Some parents did not feel comfortable continuing to teach their children the language.[10]
Revitalization
[edit]With its legacy of cultural resistance, Palenquero has survived since the early 17th century despite the many challenges. In recent years, scholars and activists have encouraged teaching and use of Palenquero, and native speakers are encouraged.[11]Three major events have contributed to the revived interest in the Palenquero creole:
Antonio Cervantes
[edit]Antonio Cervantes,also known as Kid Pambelé, is an internationally recognized bo xing champion born in Palenque de San Basilio. After he won the1972 world Jr. Welterweight championship,local residents took pride in both the village and Palenquero as a language. As result, Palenque de San Basilio attracted interest by many journalists and politicians.[12]It has continued to attract cultural and foreign attention.
UNESCO Heritage of Humanity
[edit]In 2005, Palenque was declared by the United Nations to be a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. The recognition has led to appreciation for Palenquero culture. Films, documentaries and music festivals have brought more attention to the community.[12]These type of cultural programs have successfully appealed to Colombian youth, who otherwise were not interested in Palenquero.
Academic Interest
[edit]Beginning in 1992, the educational system in Palenque de San Basilio started reintroducing Palenquero in the curriculum. Children resumed learning Palenquero, as it was introduced in preschool, and they continued to learn it in advancing grades. Parents and grandparents were encouraged to use the language at home, and classes were opened for adults. A fully equipped cultural centre was constructed to promote the language and culture.[12]
Additionally, academic research, conferences and activism have increased the desirability of Palenquero. There is new energy to continue to pass it down generations.
Language distinctions
[edit]Grammar
[edit]Similar to several other creole languages, Palenquero grammar lacks inflectional morphology. Nouns, adjectives, verbs and determiners are almost always invariant.[13]
Gender
[edit]Grammatical gender is non-existent, and adjectives derived from Spanish default to the masculine form:lengua africano‘African language’.[13]
Plurality
[edit]Plurality is marked with the particlema.(for example:ma posáis "houses" ). This particle is believed to derive from Kikongo, a Bantu language, and is the sole Kikongo-derived inflection present in Palenquero.[14]The younger speakers of Palenquero utilizemafor plurality more so than the speakers that came before them.
This particle is usually dropped with cardinal numbers greater than two:ma ndo baka"two cows" buttresi año"13 years".[13]
| Number | Person | Nominative | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | 1st | í | uncertain |
| yo | yo | ||
| 2nd | bo | vos | |
| 3rd | ele | ele | |
| Plural | 1st | suto | nosotros |
| 2nd | utere | ustedes | |
| enu(formerly archaic) | African origin | ||
| 3rd | ané | Bantu origin |
Verbs
[edit]Copula
[edit]There are fourcopulasin Palenquero:e,ta,jue,andsenda.Eroughly corresponds toserin Spanish and is used for permanent states, andtais similar to the Spanishestarin that it used for temporary states and locatives.Jueis used as a copula for nouns andsendais only found with predicative nouns and adjectives referring to permanent states.[15]
Examples:[16]
- Boémamá mí nu(You are not my mother)
- Mujé míjuenegra i yojuenegro(My wife is black and I am black)
- I tansendádotó(I will be a doctor)
- Ese mujétangolo(That woman is fat)
Vocabulary
[edit]Some 300 words of African origin have been identified in Palenquero,[17]with many believed to originate in theKikongolanguage. A comprehensive list and proposed etymologies are provided in Moñino and Schwegler's "Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua" (2002). Many of the words that come from African origin, include plant, animal, insect and landscape names.[6]Another handful of words are believed to originate from Portuguese (for example: mai 'mother'; ten 'has'; ele 'he/she'; bae 'go').
| Palenque | Spanish | English |
|---|---|---|
| burú | dinero | money |
| ngombe | ganado | cattle |
| ngubá | cacahuete | peanut |
| posá | casa.Compareposada | house |
| tambore | tambor | drum |
| mai | madre.Comparemãe. | mother |
| bumbilo | basura | garbage |
| chepa | ropa | clothing |
| chitiá | hablar | to speak |
| ngaina | gallina | chicken |
| tabaco | tabaco | tobacco |
| hemano | hermano | brother |
| onde | donde | where |
| pueta | puerta | door |
| ngolo | gordo | fat |
| flo | flor | flower |
| moná | niño | child |
| ceddo | cerdo | pig |
| cateyano | castellano | Spanish |
| foratero | forastero | outsider |
| kusa | cosa | thing, stuff |
| cuagro | barrio | neighborhood |
Sample
[edit]| Palenquero | Spanish |
|---|---|
| Tatá suto lo que ta riba cielo, santificaro sendá nombre si, miní a reino sí, asé ño voluntá sí, aí tiela cumo a cielo. Nda suto agué pan ri to ma ría, peddona ma fata suto, asina cumo suto a se peddoná, lo que se fatá suto. Nu rejá sujo caí andí tentación nu, librá suto ri má. Amén. |
Padre nuestro que estás en el cielo, santificado sea tu nombre. Venga a nosotros tu Reino. Hágase tu voluntad, así en la tierra como en el cielo. Danos hoy nuestro pan de cada día. perdona nuestras ofensas, como también nosotros perdonamos a los que nos ofenden. no nos dejes caer en la tentación, y líbranos del mal. Amén. |
See also
[edit]- Bozal Spanish– Extinct Spanish creole
References
[edit]- ^abDANE (6 November 2019).Población Negra, Afrocolombiana, Raizal y Palenquera: Resultados del Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2018(PDF)(in Spanish). DANE.Retrieved2020-05-11– via dane.gov.co.
- ^Ministerio de Cultura (2010).Palenqueros, descendientes de la insurgencia anticolonial(PDF)(in Spanish). p. 2 – via mincultura.gov.co.
- ^Title 1, Article 10. http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/colombia_const2.pdfArchived2011-09-27 at theWayback Machine
- ^Parkvall, Mikael; Jacobs, Bart (2020). "Palenquero Origins: A Tale of More than Two Languages".Diachronica.37(4): 540–576.doi:10.1075/dia.19019.par.S2CID225778990.
- ^Romero, Simon (2007-10-18)."San Basilio de Palenque Journal - A Language, Not Quite Spanish, With African Echoes - NYTimes".nytimes.Retrieved2010-02-13.
- ^abcdBickerton, Derek; Escalante, Aquilas (January 1970). "Palenquero: A Spanish-based creole of northern Colombia".Lingua.24:254–267.doi:10.1016/0024-3841(70)90080-x.ISSN0024-3841.
- ^abcDieck, Marianne (2011)."La época de formación de la lengua de Palenque: Datos históricos y lingüísticos"[The Formation Period of the Palenquero Language].Forma y Función(in Spanish).24(1): 11–24.OCLC859491443.
- ^Lipski, John (2018)."Palenquero vs. Spanish negation: Separate but equal?".Lingua.202:44–57.doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2017.12.007.ISSN0024-3841.
- ^Lipski, John M. (2012)."Free at Last: From Bound Morpheme to Discourse Marker in Lengua ri Palenge (Palenquero Creole Spanish)".Anthropological Linguistics.54(2): 101–132.doi:10.1353/anl.2012.0007.ISSN1944-6527.S2CID143540760.
- ^Hernández, Rubén; Guerrero, Clara; Palomino, Jesús (2008). "Palenque: historia libertaria, cultura y tradición".Grupo de Investigación Muntú.
- ^Lipski, John M. (2020-06-03)."What you hear is (not always) what you get: Subjects and verbs among receptive Palenquero-Spanish bilinguals".Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism.10(3): 315–350.doi:10.1075/lab.17083.lip.ISSN1879-9264.S2CID149952479.
- ^abcLipski, John M. (2012)."Free at Last: From Bound Morpheme to Discourse Marker in Lengua ri Palenge (Palenquero Creole Spanish)".Anthropological Linguistics.54(2): 101–132.doi:10.1353/anl.2012.0007.ISSN1944-6527.S2CID143540760.
- ^abcdMackenzie, Ian."Palenquero".
- ^McWhorter, John H. (2011-06-30).Linguistic Simplicity and Complexity: Why Do Languages Undress?.Walter de Gruyter. p. 92.ISBN9781934078402.
- ^Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin (2016-09-05).The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages.Oxford University Press. p. 455.ISBN9780191063251.
- ^Moñino, Yves; Schwegler, Armin (2002-01-01).Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua(in Spanish). Walter de Gruyter. p. 69.ISBN9783110960228.
- ^Moñino, Yves; Schwegler, Armin (2013-02-07).Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua(in Spanish). Walter de Gruyter. p. 171.ISBN9783110960228.
External links
[edit]
- Colombian varieties of Spanishby Richard J. File-Muriel, Rafael Orozco (eds.), (2012)
- Misa andi lengua ri palenque - Katajena, mayo 21 ri 2000
