Papier-mâché

Mardi Graspapier-mâché masks, Haiti

Papier-mâché(UK:/ˌpæpieɪˈmæʃeɪ/,US:/ˌpeɪpərməˈʃeɪ/;French:[papjemɑʃe];lit. 'chewed paper'), frequently written as paper mache, is acomposite materialconsisting ofpaperpieces or pulp, sometimes reinforced withtextiles,and bound with an adhesive, such asglue,starch,orwallpaper paste.

Papier-mâché sculptures are used as an affordablebuilding materialfor a variety of traditional and ceremonial activities, as well as in arts and crafts. Many people use this as a form of decorative hobby.

Preparation methods

Papier-mâché with the strips method for the creation of a pig

Papier-mâché mask created with the pulp method

There are two methods to prepare papier-mâché. The first method makes use of paper strips glued together with adhesive, and the other uses paper pulp obtained by soaking or boiling paper to which glue is then added.

With the first method, a form for support is needed on which to glue the paper strips. With the second method, it is possible to shape the pulp directly inside the desired form. In both methods, reinforcements with wire,chicken wire,lightweight shapes, balloons or textiles may be needed.

The traditional method of making papier-mâché adhesive is to use a mixture of water and flour or other starch, mixed to the consistency of heavycream.Other adhesives can be used if thinned to a similar texture, such aspolyvinyl acetate(PVA) based glues (often sold as wood glue or craft glue). Addingoil of clovesor other preservatives, such as salt, to the mixture reduces the chances of the product developingmold.Methyl celluloseis a naturally mold free adhesive used in a ratio of one part powder to 16 parts hot water and is a popular choice because it is non-toxic, but is not waterproof.

For the paper strips method, the paper is cut or torn into strips, and soaked in the paste until saturated. The saturated pieces are then placed onto the surface and allowed to dry slowly. The strips may be placed on anarmature,or skeleton, often of wire mesh over a structural frame, or they can be placed on an object to create a cast. Oil or grease can be used as a release agent if needed. Once dried, the resulting material can be cut, sanded and/or painted, and waterproofed by painting with a suitable water-repelling paint.Before painting any product of papier-mâché, the glue must be fully dried, otherwise mold will form and the product will rot from the inside out.

For the pulp method, the paper is left in water at least overnight to soak, or boiled in abundant water until the paper breaks down to a pulp. The excess water is drained, an adhesive is added and the papier-mâché applied to a form or, especially for smaller or simpler objects, sculpted to shape.

History

Imperial China

The Chinese during theHan dynastyappeared to be the first to use papier-mâché around 200CE,not long after they learned how to make paper. They employed the technique to make items such as warrior helmets, mirror cases, or ceremonial masks.

Ancient Egypt

In ancient Egypt, coffins anddeath maskswere often made fromcartonnage—layers ofpapyrusorlinencovered withplaster.

Middle and Far East

In Persia, papier-mâché has been used to manufacture small painted boxes, trays, étagères and cases.Japanand China also produced laminated paper articles using papier-mâché. In Japan and India, papier-mâché was used to add decorative elements to armor and shields.

Kashmir

The papier-mâché technique was first adopted in Kashmir in the 14th century byMir Sayyid Ali Hamadani,aSufimystic, who came to Kashmir during the late 14th century along with his followers, many of whom were craftsmen. These craftsmen used hand-made paper pulp from Iran.Kashmir papier-mâchéhas been used to manufacture boxes (small and big), bowls, trays, étagères, useful and decorative items, models, birds and animals, vases, lights, corporate gifts and lot more. It remains highly marketed in India and Pakistan and is a part of the luxury ornamental handicraft market.The product is protected under the Geographic Indication Act 1999 of Indian government, and was registered by the Controller General of Patents Designs and Trademarks during the period from April 2011 to March 2012 under the title "Kashmir Paper Machie".

Europe

Detail of gilt papier-mâché as applied to an English picture frame

Papier-mâché has been used for doll heads, starting as early as 1540, molded in two parts from a mixture of paper pulp, clay, and plaster, and then glued together, with the head then smoothed, painted and varnished.

In 16th century Germany, papier-mâché was used to create multiple copies of Protestant images, including Martin Luther. The North German sculptor Albert von Soest carved wooden molds which were used to made a plaster cast. This in turn was used to make many copies of the papier-mâché portrait.There is an example in the Danish National Museum.

Starting around 1725 in Europe,gildedpapier-mâché began to appear as a low-cost alternative to similarly treatedplasteror carved wood in architecture. Henry Clay ofBirmingham,England,patented a process for treating laminated sheets of paper withlinseed oilto produce waterproof panels in 1772. These sheets were used for building coach-door panels as well as for other structural uses.Theodore Jennenspatented a process in 1847 for steaming and pressing these laminated sheets into various shapes, which were then used to manufacture trays, chair backs, and structural panels, usually laid over a wood or metal armature for strength. The papier-mâché was smoothed andlacquered,or given a pearl-shell finish. The industry lasted through the 19th century.Russiahad a thriving industry in ornamental papier-mâché. A large assortment of painted Russian papier-mâché items appears in aTiffany & Co.catalog from 1893.Martin Travers,the English ecclesiastical designer, made much use of papier-mâché for his church furnishings in the 1930s.

Carton-pierre consists of papier-mâché imitating wood, stone or bronze, especially in architecture.

Mexico

Papier-mâchéCatrinas,traditional figures forday of the deadcelebrations in Mexico

Cartoneríaor papier-mâché sculpture is a traditional handcraft in Mexico. The papier-mâché works are also called "carton Piedra" (rock cardboard) for the rigidness of the final product.These sculptures today are generally made for certain yearly celebrations, especially for the Burning of Judas during Holy Week and various decorative items for Day of the Dead. However, they also include piñatas, mojigangas, masks, dolls and more made for various other occasions. There is also a significant market for collectors as well. Papier-mâché was introduced into Mexico during the colonial period, originally to make items for church. Since then, the craft has developed, especially in central Mexico. In the 20th century, the creation of works by Mexico City artisans Pedro Linares and Carmen Caballo Sevilla were recognized as works of art with patrons such as Diego Rivera. The craft has become less popular with more recent generations, but various government and cultural institutions work to preserve it.

Paper boats

One common item made in the 19th century in America was the papercanoe,most famously made by Waters & Sons ofTroy,New York. The invention of the continuous sheet paper machine allows paper sheets to be made of any length, and this made an ideal material for building a seamless boathull.The paper of the time was significantly stretchier than modern paper, especially when damp, and this was used to good effect in the manufacture of paper boats. A layer of thick, dampened paper was placed over a hull mold and tacked down at the edges. A layer of glue was added, allowed to dry, and sanded down. Additional layers of paper and glue could be added to achieve the desired thickness, and cloth could be added as well to provide additional strength and stiffness. The final product was trimmed, reinforced with wooden strips at thekeelandgunwalesto provide stiffness, and waterproofed. Paperracing shellswere highly competitive during the late 19th century. Few examples of paper boats survived. One of the best known paper boats was the canoe, the "Maria Theresa", used by Nathaniel Holmes Bishop to travel from New York to Florida in 1874–75. An account of his travels was published in the bookVoyage of the Paper Canoe.

Paper observatory domes

Papier-mâché panels were used in the late 19th century and early 20th century to produce lightweight domes, used primarily forobservatories.The domes were constructed over a wooden or iron framework, and the first ones were made by the same manufacturer that made the early paper boats, Waters & Sons. The domes used in observatories had to be light in weight so that they could easily be rotated to position the telescope opening in any direction, and large enough so that it could cover the largerefractortelescopesin use at the time.

Applications

With modern plastics and composites taking over the decorative and structural roles that papier-mâché played in the past, papier-mâché has become less of a commercial product. There are exceptions, such asMicarta,a modern paper composite, and traditional applications such as thepiñata.It is still used in cases where the ease of construction and low cost are important, such as inarts and crafts.

Carnival floats

Building of a papier-mâché mask for the sculpture ofNichi Vendola,in the Carnival of Massafra

Papier-mâché is commonly used for large, temporary sculptures such asCarnivalfloats.A basic structure of wood, metal and metal wire mesh, such aspoultry netting,is covered in papier-mâché. Once dried, details are added. The papier-mâché is then sanded and painted. Carnival floats can be very large and comprise a number of characters, props and scenic elements, all organized around a chosen theme. They can also accommodate several dozen people, including the operators of the mechanisms. The floats can have movable parts, like the facial features of a character, or its limbs. It is not unusual for local professional architects, engineers, painters, sculptors and ceramists to take part in the design and construction of the floats.New Orleans Mardi Grasfloat maker Blaine Kern, operator of theMardi Gras Worldfloat museum, brings Carnival float artists from Italy to work on his floats.

Costuming and the theatre

Creating papier-mâché masks is common among elementary school children and craft lovers. Either one's own face or a balloon can be used as a mold. This is common during Halloween time as a facial mask complements the costume.

Papier-mâché is an economical building material for both sets and costume elements.It is also employed in puppetry. A famous company that popularized it isBread and Puppet Theaterfounded byPeter Schumann.

Military uses

Paper sabots

The Schenkl projectile, used in theAmerican Civil War,used a papier-mâchésabot

Papier-mâché was used in a number of firearms as a material to formsabots.Despite the extremely high pressures and temperatures in the bore of a firearm, papier-mâché proved strong enough to contain the pressure, and push a sub-caliberprojectile out of the barrel with a high degree of accuracy. Papier-mâché sabots were used in everything from small arms, such as theDreyse needle gun,up toartillery,such as the Schenkl projectile.

Drop tanks

DuringWorld War II,military aircraft fuel tanks were constructed out of plastic-impregnated paper and used to extend the range or loiter time of aircraft. These tanks were plumbed to the regular fuel system via detachable fittings and dropped from the aircraft when the fuel was expended, allowing short-range aircraft such as fighters to accompany long-range aircraft such as bombers on longer missions as protection forces. Two types of paper tanks were used, a 200-gallon (758 L)conformal fuel tankmade by the United States for theRepublic P-47 Thunderbolt,and a 108-gallon (409 L) cylindricaldrop tankmade by the British and used by the P-47 and theNorth American P-51 Mustang.

Combat decoy

From about 1915 inWorld War I,the British were beginning to counter the highly effective sniping of the Germans. Among the techniques the British developed was to employ papier-mâché figures resembling soldiers to draw sniper fire. Some were equipped with an apparatus that produced smoke from a cigarette, to increase the realism of the effect. Bullet holes in the decoys were used to determine the position of enemy snipers who had fired the shots. Very high success rates were claimed for this experiment.

Gallery

• 
  Carmen y los superhéroes de la Naturaleza,Catrinaexhibited at the Interactive Museum-Labyrinth of Science and Arts inSan Luis Potosí City(San Luis Potosí,Mexico)
• 
  Chair decorated with papier-mâché andmother of pearl,exhibited in the Museum of Carmen de Maipú (Chile)
• 
  Papier-mâché shark
• 
  Papier-mâché rooster atLisbon(Portugal)

See also

• Vycinanka (Belarusian, Ukrainian, Polish paper art)
• Russian lacquer art
• Decoupage
• Japanning
• Hanji (Korean paper art)
• Papier-mâché binding,a form of binding a book used in the 19th century
• Papier-mâché Tiara,a papal tiara made in exile for Pope Pius VII's papal coronation in a church in Venice in 1800
• Wet-folding,anorigamitechnique that uses damp paper.

External links

• The dictionary definition ofpapier-mâchéat Wiktionary
• Media related toPapier-mâchéat Wikimedia Commons
• Papier-mâché–Encyclopædia Britannica