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Parakoimomenos

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Theparakoimōmenos(Greek:παρακοιμώμενος,literally "the one who sleeps beside [the emperor's chamber]" ) was aByzantinecourt position,usually reserved foreunuchs.The position's proximity to theemperorsguaranteed its holders influence and power, and many of them, especially in the 9th and 10th centuries, functioned as the Byzantine Empire's chief ministers.

History and functions

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The title was used anachronistically by various Byzantine writers for prominent eunuch court officials of the distant past, including Euphratas underConstantine the Great(reigned 306–337), the notoriousChrysaphiusunderTheodosius II(r. 408–450), or an unnamed holder of the office under EmperorMaurice(r. 582–602). The position was probably created no later than the reign ofLeo IV the Khazar(r. 775–780), when the chroniclerTheophanes the Confessormentions a "koubikoulariosandparakoimomenos”serving Leo.[1][2][3]In the beginning, it was a modest office, given to thosekoubikoularioi(fromLatincubicularius,denoting the eunuch servants of the emperor's "sacred bedchamber" orsacrum cubiculum) who were tasked with sleeping outside the emperor's chamber during the night as a security measure. As evidenced by seals from the 7th and 8th centuries, it was usually combined with other palace functions, such as theepi tēs trapezēs,and awarded lowly dignities such asostiarios.[1][2]It is possible that in the cases where several co-emperors reigned at the same time, aparakoimōmenoswould be assigned to each.[4]

Goldsolidusof Basil I the Macedonian

From the mid-9th century, however, the office grew in importance, outstripping its nominal superior, thepraipositos,until it came to be regarded as the highest post reserved for eunuchs, with its holders raised to the dignity ofpatrikios.Over the next two centuries, many of its holders were able to use their proximity to the imperial person to exercise considerable political influence. Some of these men, exceptionally, were not eunuchs. During the reigns of weak or uninterested emperors, holders of the titleparakoimōmenos,such asSamonas,Joseph BringasandBasil Lekapenos,functioned as chief ministers, whileBasil the Macedonian(r. 867–886) was able to use this position to eventually usurp the throne fromMichael III(r. 842–867).[1][5]

By the 11th century, theparakoimōmenoshad assumed most of the old administrative functions of thepraipositosas well. The post continued to be important in the 11th century, but seems to have declined in the 12th, when it also began to be regularly awarded—possibly as a noble title rather than an active function—to non-eunuchs as well.[1][6]The post survived in theEmpire of Nicaea(1204–1261) and into thePalaiologan period,where it was divided in two: theparakoimōmenos tēs sphendonēs(παρακοιμώμενος τῆς σφενδόνης) and theparakoimōmenos tou koitōnos(παρακοιμώμενος τοῦ κοιτῶνος). Theparakoimōmenos tou koitōnosretained the duties of supervising thekoitōn(the imperial bedchamber), assisted by theprokathēmenostou koitōnos(προκαθήμενος τοῡ κοιτῶνος) and commanding the chamberlains (κοιτωνάριοι,koitōnarioi) and pages (παιδόπουλοι,paidopouloi), while theparakoimōmenos tēs sphendonēswho was entrusted with keeping thesphendonē,the ring with the emperor's personal seal, used to seal his private correspondence to his family.[7][8]In the absence of theprōtostratōr,they were also charged with carrying the emperor's sword.[9]At the same time, their holders ceased to be palace eunuchs, but were important noblemen and administrators; by the 14th century, the title ofparakoimōmenosbecame essentially an honorific dignity.[10]

The two posts ranked 16th and 17th respectively in the imperial hierarchy, according to the mid-14th century authorpseudo-Kodinos,between thekouropalatēsand thelogothetēs tou genikou.[11]Their court costume consisted of a silkkabbadiontunic, and a gold-embroideredskiadionhat, or a domedskaranikoncovered in apricot-coloured silk with gold-wire decorations. It bore in front a glass image of the emperor standing in front, and in the rear a similar image of him enthroned. Theparakoimōmenos tēs sphendonēswas distinguished by his staff of office (dikanikion), which was of wood, with the topmost knob gilded, the next one covered in white-golden braid, the next again gilded, etc. Thedikanikionof theparakoimōmenos tou koitōnoswas similar, except that only the topmost knob was gilded, the others being all covered in white-golden braid.[12]

Knownparakoimōmenoi

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Miniature from theMadrid Skylitzes,showingSamonasinciting Emperor Leo VI againstAndronikos Doukas

A number of seals mention a Theophylact,koubikoularios,parakoimomenos,andstrategosofSicily;he may be identical to the exarchTheophylact,attested in 701. This would make Theophylact the first known holder.[13]The first secure mention in the sources occurs, as mentioned above, in the chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor, where thekoubikoulariosandparakoimomenosTheophanes was among those members of the court dismissed for theiriconodulesympathies under Leo IV.[2]The next holder, theostiariosScholastikios, is only known underTheophilos(r. 829–842).[2]ThepatrikiosDamianserved Michael III until circa 865, and was then replaced by Michael's favourite, Basil the Macedonian. After Basil's accession to co-emperor in 866, the office was occupied by a certain Rentakios until the murder of Michael III.[2]Judging from his own experience that the office was too powerful and too close to the emperor, Basil I (r. 867–886) did not appoint aparakoimōmenos.His son and successor Leo VI (r. 886–912) revived the office in 907 for his favouriteSamonas,who until then was aprōtovestiarios.He held the post until his disgrace in summer 908.[14][15]He was replaced byConstantine Barbaros,who held the office until circa 919 with the exception of the reign ofAlexander(r. 912–913), who installed thepatrikiosBarbatos in his stead.Romanos I Lekapenos(r. 920–944) named his trusted aideTheophanesasparakoimōmenos.[16]

Theophanes was retained byConstantine VII(r. 913–959) until 947, when he was replaced byBasil Lekapenos.Lekapenos, the bastard son of Emperor Romanos I, would play a dominant role in Byzantine history over the next four decades, toppling emperors and serving as the virtual regent or co-regent (paradynasteuōn) of the Empire for over thirty years, comprising the reigns ofNikephoros II Phokas(r. 963–969) andJohn I Tzimiskes(r. 969–976), and the early reign ofBasil II(r. 976–1025) until his dismissal in 985. Basil was replaced underRomanos II(r. 959–963) by the capableJoseph Bringas,who also exercised thede factorule of the state, but was toppled by Lekapenos shortly after Romanos II's death.[17]

In the 11th century, the most important holder of the office was Nicholas, who wasparakoimōmenosandproedrosas well asDomestic of the SchoolsunderConstantine VIII(r. 1025–1028) and served again in the same offices for a time underConstantine IX Monomachos(r. 1042–1055).[18]John Komnenos,a relative of the EmperorJohn II Komnenos(r. 1118–1143), was named asparakoimōmenosand entrusted with the charge of state affairs along withGregory Taronites.[19]In the late 12th century, the eunuch Nikephoros underAndronikos I Komnenos(r. 1183–1185) and the likewise eunuchJohn OinopolitesunderAlexios III Angelos(r. 1195–1203) are the only known holders.[7]

In the Empire of Nicaea, known holders are thepansebastos sebastosAlexios Krateros(attested circa 1227–1231, in tandem with the post ofapographeus) underJohn III Vatatzes(r. 1222–1254),[7]and theprōtovestiaritēsGeorge Zagarommates,who was promoted toparakoimōmenosbyTheodore II Laskaris(r. 1254–1258) but was soon disgraced. He eventually rose topanhypersebastosunderMichael VIII Palaiologos(r. 1259–1282).[7][20]An otherwise unidentifiedpansebastosandparakoimōmenosJohn also appears to belong to the middle of the 13th century.[21]

Michael VIII Palaiologos named a trusted agent of his, a defector from theSeljukcourt namedBasil Basilikos,to serve asparakoimōmenosof thekoitōnduring his early reign (1259–1261).[22][23]After becoming sole emperor in 1261, Michael namedJohn Makrenosto the post. Makrenos participated in the campaign to recover theMoreafrom the Latins, and fought in the battles ofPrinitzaandMakryplagi,being captured in the latter. He was later returned to Constantinople, where he was accused oftreasonand blinded.[10][24]Threeparakoimōmenoiof thesphendonēare known under Michael VIII: thepansebastos sebastosIsaac Doukas,brother of John III Vatatzes, who was present at the signature of theTreaty of Nymphaeumand died as an envoy inGenoa;[10][25]Gabriel Sphrantzes(a nephew ofJohn I Doukas,ruler ofThessaly);[10][26]andConstantine Doukas Nestongos.Nestongos was closely associated withAndronikos II Palaiologos(r. 1282–1328), accompanying him on his first expedition against theAydinidTurks in 1280. He retained his position at least during the early years of Andronikos II's reign.[10][27]

Apart from Nestongos, the followingparakoimōmenoiare known under Andronikos II Palaiologos: Dionysios Drimys, mentioned in a poem ofManuel Philesca. 1300;[28]Andronikos Kantakouzenosin ca. 1320;[10][29]Andronikos Komnenos Doukas Palaiologos Tornikes,a grandson of Michael VIII's half-brotherConstantine Palaiologos,who held the post in ca. 1324–1327;[10][30]John Phakrases,author of a treatise in verse on imperial offices;[31][32]and the generalJohn Choumnos,the eldest son of the scholar and ministerNikephoros Choumnos,who was promoted fromparakoimōmenos tou koitōnostoparakoimōmenos tēs sphendonēsin 1307.[33][34]An unnamed member of theRaoulfamily, mentioned by Manuel Philes, also held the post at about the same time.[35]

Perhaps the most famous of the late Byzantineparakoimōmenoiwas the capable and ambitiousAlexios Apokaukos,a man of humble birth who rose in high office as a protégé ofJohn Kantakouzenosand the chief instigator of theByzantine civil war of 1341–1347.He was madeparakoimōmenosin 1321, and held the post until his elevation to the rank ofmegas douxin 1341.[31][36]Finally, the last known holders are Demetrios, "uncle" of the EmperorJohn V Palaiologos(r. 1341–1391), attested at Constantinople in 1342;[37]Manuel Sergopoulos,named "parakoimōmenosof the greatsphendonē"byJohn VI Kantakouzenos(r. 1347–1354) and given the lordship ofMarmara Islandfor life by the same emperor;[38]the physician Angelos Kalothetos, attested atMystrasin a letter in 1362,[39][40]and thekatholikos kritēsTheophylaktos Dermokaites,who was sent as en emissary toPope Urban Vin October 1367.[39][41]

Only oneparakoimōmenosis known for theEmpire of Trebizond(1204–1461), Michael Sampson, who is attested in 1432.[42]

References

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Citations

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  1. ^abcdODB,p. 1584.
  2. ^abcdeGuilland 1967,p. 204.
  3. ^Bury 1911,pp. 124–125.
  4. ^Guilland 1967,p. 203.
  5. ^Guilland 1967,pp. 202–204.
  6. ^Guilland 1967,pp. 203, 206–208.
  7. ^abcdGuilland 1967,p. 208.
  8. ^Verpeaux 1966,pp. 175–176.
  9. ^Verpeaux 1966,p. 176.
  10. ^abcdefgGuilland 1967,p. 209.
  11. ^Verpeaux 1966,p. 137.
  12. ^Verpeaux 1966,p. 156.
  13. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,pp. 99–101.
  14. ^Guilland 1967,pp. 204–205.
  15. ^Tougher 1997,p. 198.
  16. ^Guilland 1967,p. 205.
  17. ^Guilland 1967,pp. 205–206.
  18. ^Guilland 1967,pp. 206–207.
  19. ^Guilland 1967,p. 207.
  20. ^PLP,6417. Zαγαρομμάτης Γεώργιος.
  21. ^PLP,8665. Ἰωάννης.
  22. ^Guilland 1967,pp. 208–209.
  23. ^PLP,2458. Βασιλικὸς Βασίλειος.
  24. ^PLP,(16358) 92605. Μακρηνός.
  25. ^PLP,5691. Δούκας Ἰσαάκιος.
  26. ^PLP,27276. Σφραντζῆς Γαβριήλ.
  27. ^PLP,20201. Νεστόγγος, Κωνσταντῖνος Δούκας.
  28. ^PLP,5829. Δριμὺς Διονύσιος.
  29. ^PLP,10955. Καντακουζηνὸς Ἀνδρόνικος.
  30. ^PLP,29122. Tορνίκης, Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνὸς Δούκας Παλαιολόγος.
  31. ^abGuilland 1967,p. 210.
  32. ^PLP,29580. Φακρασῆς Ἰωάννης.
  33. ^Guilland 1967,pp. 209–210.
  34. ^PLP,30954. Xοῦμνος, Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός (?).
  35. ^PLP,24106. Ῥαούλ.
  36. ^PLP,1180. Ἀπόκαυκος Ἀλέξιος.
  37. ^PLP,5298. Δημήτριος.
  38. ^PLP,25210. Σεργόπουλος Μανουήλ.
  39. ^abGuilland 1967,p. 211.
  40. ^PLP,209. Ἄγγελος Καλόθετος.
  41. ^PLP,91760. Δερμοκαΐτης Θεοφύλακτος.
  42. ^PLP,24789. Σαμψὼν Μιχαήλ.

Sources

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  • Bury, J. B.(1911).The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century – With a Revised Text of the Kletorologion of Philotheos.London: Oxford University Press.OCLC1046639111.
  • Guilland, Rodolphe(1967). "Le Parakimomène".Recherches sur les institutions byzantines[Studies on the Byzantine Institutions]. Berliner byzantinische Arbeiten 35 (in French). Vol. I. Berlin and Amsterdam: Akademie-Verlag & Adolf M. Hakkert. pp. 202–215.OCLC878894516.
  • Kazhdan, Alexander,ed. (1991).The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium.Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-504652-8.
  • Maksimovic, Ljubomir (1988).The Byzantine Provincial Administration Under the Palaiologoi.Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert.ISBN90-256-0968-6.
  • Prigent, Vivien; Nichanian, Mikaël (2003). "Les stratèges de Sicile. De la naissance du thème au règne de Léon V".Revue des études byzantines(in French).61:97–141.doi:10.3406/rebyz.2003.2273.
  • Tougher, Shaun (1997).The Reign of Leo VI (886-912): Politics and People.Leiden: Brill.ISBN978-90-04-10811-0.
  • Trapp, Erich; Beyer, Hans-Veit; Walther, Rainer; Sturm-Schnabl, Katja; Kislinger, Ewald; Leontiadis, Ioannis; Kaplaneres, Sokrates (1976–1996).Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit(in German). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.ISBN3-7001-3003-1.
  • Verpeaux, Jean, ed. (1966).Pseudo-Kodinos, Traité des Offices(in French). Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
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