Pergamon

For the publisher, seePergamon Press.

Pergamon

τὸ Πέργαμον(in Ancient Greek)
Shown within Turkey
Alternative name	Pergamum
Location	Bergama,İzmir Province,Turkey
Region	Aeolis
Coordinates	39°07′57″N27°11′03″E
Type	Settlement
Area	90 ha (220 acres)
History
Cultures	Greek
Associated with	Epigonus,Sosus of Pergamon,Aelius Nicon,Galen
Site notes
Condition	Ruined
Ownership	Public
Public access	Yes
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Pergamon and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape
Criteria	Cultural: i, ii, iii, iv, vi
Reference	1457
Inscription	2014 (38thSession)
Area	332.5 ha
Buffer zone	476.9 ha

PergamonorPergamum(/ˈpɜːrɡəmən/or/ˈpɜːrɡəmɒn/;Greek:Πέργαμον), also referred to by its modern Greek formPergamos(Πέργαμος),was a rich and powerfulancient Greekcity inAeolis.It is located 26 kilometres (16 mi) from the modern coastline of theAegean Seaon apromontoryon the north side of the riverCaicus(modern-dayBakırçay) and northwest of the modern city ofBergama,Turkey.

During theHellenistic period,it became the capital of theKingdom of Pergamonin 281–133 BC under the Attalid dynasty, who transformed it into one of the major cultural centres of the Greek world. Many remains of its monuments can still be seen and especially the masterpiece of thePergamon Altar.Pergamon was the northernmost of theseven churches of Asiacited in theNew TestamentBook of Revelation.

The city is centered on a 335-metre-high (1,100 ft)mesaofandesite,which formed itsacropolis.This mesa falls away sharply on the north, west, and east sides, but three natural terraces on the south side provide a route up to the top. To the west of the acropolis, the Selinus River (modern Bergamaçay) flows through the city, while theCetiusriver (modern Kestelçay) passes by to the east.

Pergamon was added to theUNESCO World HeritageList in 2014.

Location

Ruins of the ancient city of Pergamon

Pergamon lies on the north edge of the Caicus plain in the historic region ofMysiain the northwest of Turkey. The Caicus river breaks through the surrounding mountains and hills at this point and flows in a wide arc to the southwest. At the foot of the mountain range to the north, between the rivers Selinus and Cetius, there is the massif of Pergamon which rises 335 metres (1,099 ft) above sea level. The site is only 26 km from the sea, but the Caicus plain is not open to the sea, since the way is blocked by the Karadağ massif. As a result, the area has a strongly inland character. In Hellenistic times, the town ofElaiaat the mouth of the Caicus served as the port of Pergamon. The climate is Mediterranean with a dry period from May to August, as is common along the west coast of Asia Minor.

The Caicus valley is mostly composed of volcanic rock, particularly andesite, and the Pergamon massif is also an intrusivestockof andesite. The massif is about one kilometre wide and around 5.5 km long from north to south. It consists of a broad, elongated base and a relatively small peak - the upper city. The side facing the Cetius river is a sharp cliff, while the side facing the Selinus is a little rough. On the north side, the rock forms a 70 metres (230 ft) wide spur of rock. To the southeast of this spur, which is known as the 'Garden of the Queen', the massif reaches its greatest height and breaks off suddenly immediately to the east. The upper city extends for another 250 metres (820 ft) to the south, but it remains very narrow, with a width of only 150 metres (490 ft). At its south en d the massif falls gradually to the east and south, widening to around 350 metres (1,150 ft) and then descends to the plain towards the southwest.

History

Pre-Hellenistic period

Settlement of Pergamon can be detected as far back as theArchaic period,thanks to modest archaeological finds, especially fragments of pottery imported from the west, particularly eastern Greece andCorinth,which date to the late 8th century BC.Earlier habitation in theBronze Agecannot be demonstrated, although Bronze Agestone toolsare found in the surrounding area.

The earliest mention of Pergamon in literary sources comes fromXenophon'sAnabasis,since the march of theTen Thousandunder Xenophon's command ended at Pergamon in 400/399 BC.Xenophon, who calls the city Pergamos, handed over the rest of his Greek troops (some 5,000 men according toDiodorus) toThibron,who was planning an expedition against the PersiansatrapsTissaphernesandPharnabazus,at this location in March 399 BC. At this time Pergamon was in the possession of the family ofGongylosfromEretria,a Greek favourable to theAchaemenid Empirewho had taken refuge in Asia Minor and obtained the territory of Pergamon fromXerxes I,and Xenophon was hosted by his widow Hellas.

In 362 BC,Orontes,satrap of Mysia, used Pergamon as his base for an unsuccessful revolt against the Persian Empire.Only withAlexander the Greatwere Pergamon and the surrounding area removed from Persian control. There are few traces of the pre-Hellenistic city, since in the following period the terrain was profoundly changed and the construction of broad terraces involved the removal of almost all earlier structures. Parts of the temple ofAthena,as well as the walls and foundations of the altar in the sanctuary ofDemeter,go back to the fourth century.

• 
  Possible coinage of the Greek rulerGongylos,wearing the Persian cap on the reverse, as ruler of Pergamon for theAchaemenid Empire.Pergamon,Mysia,circa 450 BC. The name of the city ΠΕΡΓ ( "PERG" ), appears for the first on this coinage, and is the first evidence for the name of the city.
• 
  Coin ofOrontes,Achaemenid Satrap ofMysia(including Pergamon), Adramyteion. Circa 357-352 BC

Hellenistic period

Image ofPhiletaeruson a coin ofEumenes I

TheKingdom of Pergamon,shown at its greatest extent in 188 BC

Over-life-size portrait head, probably ofAttalus I

Lysimachus,King ofThrace,took possession in 301 BC, and the town was enlarged by his lieutenantPhiletaerus.In 281 BC the kingdom of Thrace collapsed and Philetaerus became an independent ruler, founding theAttalid dynasty.His family ruled Pergamon from 281 until 133 BC: Philetaerus 281–263;Eumenes I263–241;Attalus I241–197;Eumenes II197–159;Attalus II159–138; andAttalus III138–133. Philetaerus controlled only Pergamon and its immediate environs, but the city acquired much new territory under Eumenes I. In particular, after the Battle ofSardisin 261 BC againstAntiochus I,Eumenes was able to appropriate the area down to the coast and some way inland. Despite this increase of his domain, Eumenes did not take a royal title. In 238 his successor Attalus I defeated theGalatians,to whom Pergamon had paid tribute under Eumenes I.Attalus thereafter declared himself leader of an entirely independent Pergamene kingdom.

The Attalids became some of the most loyal supporters ofRomein the Hellenistic world. Attalus I allied with Rome againstPhilip V of Macedon,during thefirstandsecondMacedonian Wars.In theRoman–Seleucid War,Pergamon joined the Romans' coalition againstAntiochus III,and was rewarded with almost all the formerSeleuciddomains inAsia Minorat thePeace of Apameain 188 BC. The kingdom's territories thus reached their greatest extent. Eumenes II supported Rome again in theThird Macedonian War,but the Romans heard rumours of his conducting secret negotiations with their opponentPerseus of Macedon.On this basis, Rome denied any reward to Pergamon and attempted to replace Eumenes with the future Attalus II, who refused to cooperate. These incidents cost Pergamon its privileged status with the Romans, who granted it no further territory.

Nevertheless, under the brothers Eumenes II and Attalus II, Pergamon reached its apex and was rebuilt on a monumental scale. It had retained the same dimensions for a long interval after its founding by Philetaerus, covering c. 21 hectares (52 acres). After 188 BC a massive new city wall was constructed, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) long and enclosing an area of approximately 90 hectares (220 acres).The Attalids' goal was to create a secondAthens,a cultural and artistic hub of the Greek world. They remodeled their Acropolis after theAcropolisin Athens, and theLibrary of Pergamonwas renowned as second only to theLibrary of Alexandria.Pergamon was also a flourishing center for the production ofparchment,whose name is a corruption ofpergamenos,meaning "from Pergamon". Despite this etymology, parchment had been used in Asia Minor long before the rise of the city; the story that it was invented by the Pergamenes, to circumvent thePtolemies' monopoly onpapyrusproduction, is not true.Surviving epigraphic documents show how the Attalids supported the growth of towns by sending in skilled artisans and by remitting taxes. They allowed the Greek cities in their domains to maintain nominal independence, and sent gifts to Greek cultural sites likeDelphi,Delos,and Athens. The two brothers Eumenes II and Attalus II displayed the most distinctive trait of the Attalids: a pronounced sense of family without rivalry or intrigue - rare amongst the Hellenistic dynasties.Attalus II bore the epithet 'Philadelphos', 'he who loves his brother', and his relations with Eumenes II were compared to the harmony between the mythical brothersCleobis and Biton.

When Attalus III died without an heir in 133 BC, he bequeathed the whole of Pergamon to Rome. This was challenged byAristonicus,who claimed to be Attalus III's brother and led anarmed uprisingagainst the Romans with the help ofBlossius,a famousStoic philosopher.For a period he enjoyed success, defeating and killing the Roman consulP. Licinius Crassusand his army, but he was defeated in 129 BC by the consulM. Perperna.The Attalid kingdom was divided between Rome,Pontus,andCappadocia,with the bulk of its territory becoming the newRoman provinceofAsia.The city itself was declared free and served briefly as capital of the province, before this distinction was transferred toEphesus.

Roman period

Mithridates VI,portrait in theLouvre

In 88 BC,Mithridates VI Eupatormade Pergamon his headquarters in hisfirst waragainst Rome, in which he was defeated. The victorious Romans deprived Pergamon of all its benefits and of its status as a free city. Henceforth the city was required to pay tribute and accommodate and supply Roman troops, and the property of many of the inhabitants was confiscated. Imported Pergamene goods were among the luxuries enjoyed byLucullus.The members of the Pergamene aristocracy, especiallyDiodorus Pasparusin the 70s BC, used their own possessions to maintain good relationships with Rome, by acting as donors for the development of the city. Numerous honorific inscriptions indicate Pasparus' work and his exceptional position in Pergamon at this time.

Pergamon still remained a famous city, and was the seat of aconventus(regional assembly). Itsneocorate,granted byAugustus,was the first manifestation of theimperial cultin the province of Asia.Pliny the Elderrefers to the city as the most important in the provinceand the local aristocracy continued to reach the highest circles of power in the 1st century AD, likeAulus Julius Quadratuswho wasconsulin 94 and 105.

Pergamon in the Roman province ofAsia,90 BC

Yet it was only underTrajanand his successors that a comprehensive redesign and remodelling took place, with the construction of a Roman 'new city' at the base of the Acropolis. The city was the first in the province to receive a second neocorate, from Trajan in AD 113/4.Hadrianraised the city to the rank ofmetropolisin 123 and thereby elevated it above its local rivals,EphesusandSmyrna.An ambitious building programme was carried out: massive temples, a stadium, atheatre,a huge forum and anamphitheatrewere constructed. In addition, at the city limits the shrine toAsclepius(the god of healing) was expanded into a lavish spa. This sanctuary grew in fame and was considered one of the most famous healing centers of the Roman world.

A model of the acropolis of Pergamon, showing the situation in the 2nd century CE

In the middle of the 2nd century Pergamon was one of the largest cities in the province, and had around 200,000 inhabitants.Galen,the most famous physician of antiquity aside fromHippocrates,was born at Pergamon and received his early training at the Asclepieion. At the beginning of the 3rd centuryCaracallagranted the city a third neocorate, but a decline had already set in. The economic strength of Pergamon collapsed during thecrisis of the Third Century,as the city was badly damaged in an earthquake in 262 and was sacked by theGothsshortly thereafter. Inlate antiquity,it experienced a limited economic recovery.

Byzantine period

In AD 663/4, Pergamon was captured by raidingArabsfor the first time.As a result of the ongoing Arab threat, the area of settlement retracted to theacropolis,which the EmperorConstans II(r. 641–668) fortifiedwith a 6-meter-thick (20 ft) wall built ofspolia.

During the middle Byzantine period, the city was part of theThracesian Theme,and from the time ofLeo VI the Wise(r. 886–912) of theTheme of Samos.7th-century sources attest anArmeniancommunity in Pergamon, probably formed of refugees from theMuslim conquests;this community produced the emperorPhilippicus(r. 711–713).In 716, Pergamon was sacked again by the armies ofMaslama ibn Abd al-Malik.It was again rebuilt and refortified after the Arabs abandoned theirSiege of Constantinoplein 717–718.

Pergamon suffered from theSeljukinvasion of western Anatolia after theBattle of Manzikertin 1071. Attacks in 1109 and 1113 largely destroyed the city, which was only rebuilt, by EmperorManuel I Komnenos(r. 1143–1180), around 1170. It likely became the capital of the new theme ofNeokastra,established by Manuel.UnderIsaac II Angelos(r. 1185–1195), thelocal seewas promoted to ametropolitan bishopric,having previously been asuffragan dioceseof theMetropolis of Ephesus.

After theSack of Constantinoplein 1204 during theFourth Crusade,Pergamon became part of theEmpire of Nicaea.When EmperorTheodore II Laskaris(r. 1254–1285) visited Pergamon in 1250, he was shown the house of Galen, but he saw that the theatre had been destroyed and, except for the walls which he paid some attention to, only the vaults over the Selinus seemed noteworthy to him. The monuments of the Attalids and the Romans were only plundered ruins by this time.

With the expansion of theAnatolian beyliks,Pergamon was absorbed into the beylik ofKarasidsshortly after 1300, and then conquered by theOttoman beylik.TheOttomanSultanMurad IIIhad two largealabasterurns transported from the ruins of Pergamon and placed on two sides of the nave in theHagia SophiainIstanbul.

Pergamon in myth

Founding of Pergamon: depiction from the Telephos frieze of the Pergamon altar

Pergamon, which traced its founding back toTelephus,the son ofHeracles,is not mentioned in Greek myth or epic of the archaic or classical periods. However, in theEpic Cyclethe Telephus myth is already connected with the area of Mysia. Searching for his mother, Telephus visits Mysia on the advice of an oracle. There he becomesTeuthras' son-in-law or foster-son and inherits his kingdom ofTeuthrania,encompassing the area between Pergamon and the mouth of the Caicus. Telephus refuses to participate in theTrojan War,but his sonEurypylusfights on the side of theTrojans.This material was dealt with in a number of tragedies, such asAeschylus'Mysi,Sophocles'Aleadae,andEuripides'TelephusandAuge,but Pergamon does not seem to have played any role in any of them.The adaptation of the myth is not entirely smooth.

Thus, on the one hand, Eurypylus who must have been part of the dynastic line as a result of the appropriation of the myth, was not mentioned in the hymn sung in honour of Telephus in the Asclepieion. Otherwise he does not seem to have been paid any heed.But the Pergamenes made offerings to Telephusand the grave of his motherAugewas located in Pergamon near the Caicus.Pergamon thus entered the Trojan epic cycle, with its ruler said to have been anArcadianwho had fought with Telephus againstAgamemnonwhen he landed at the Caicus, mistook it for Troy and began to ravage the land.

On the other hand, the story was linked to the foundation of the city with another myth – that ofPergamus,theeponymoushero of the city. He also belonged to the broader cycle of myths related to the Trojan War as the grandson ofAchillesthrough his fatherNeoptolemusand ofEetionofThebethrough his motherAndromache(concubine to Neoptolemus after the death ofHectorofTroy).With his mother, he was said to have fled to Mysia where he killed the ruler of Teuthrania and gave the city his own name. There he built aheroonfor his mother after her death.In a less heroic version, Grynos the son of Eurypylus named a city after him in gratitude for a favour.These mythic connections seem to be late and are not attested before the 3rd century BC. Pergamus' role remained subordinate, although he did receive some cult worship. Beginning in the Roman period, his image appears on civic coinage and he is said to have had a heroon in the city.Even so, he provided a further, deliberately crafted link to the world ofHomericepic. Mithridates VI was celebrated in the city as a new Pergamus.

However, for the Attalids, it was apparently the genealogical connection to Heracles that was crucial, since all the other Hellenistic dynasties had long established such links:thePtolemiesderived themselves directly from Heracles,theAntigonidsinserted Heracles into their family tree in the reign ofPhilip Vat the end of the 3rd century BC at the latest,and theSeleucidsclaimed descent fromApollo.All of these claims derive their significance fromAlexander the Great,who claimed descent from Heracles, through his fatherPhilip II.

In their constructive adaptation of the myth, the Attalids stood within the tradition of the other, older Hellenistic dynasties, who legitimized themselves through divine descent, and sought to increase their own prestige.The inhabitants of Pergamon enthusiastically followed their lead and took to calling themselvesTelephidai(Τηλεφίδαι) and referring to Pergamon itself in poetic registers as the 'Telephian city' (Τήλεφις πόλις).

History of research and excavation

Christian Wilberg:Excavation area of the Pergamon Altar.1879 sketch.

The first mention of Pergamon in written records after ancient times comes from the 13th century. Beginning withCiriaco de' Pizzicolliin the 15th century, ever more travellers visited the place and published their accounts of it. The key description is that of Thomas Smith, who visited the Levant in 1668 and transmitted a detailed description of Pergamon, to which the great 17th century travellersJacob SponandGeorge Whelerwere able to add nothing significant in their own accounts.

In the late 18th century, these visits were reinforced by a scholarly (especially ancient historical) desire for research, epitomised byMarie-Gabriel-Florent-Auguste de Choiseul-Gouffier,a traveller in Asia Minor and French ambassador to theSublime PorteinIstanbulfrom 1784 to 1791. At the beginning of the 19th century,Charles Robert Cockerellproduced a detailed account andOtto Magnus von Stackelbergmade important sketches.A proper, multi-page description with plans, elevations, and views of the city and its ruins was first produced byCharles Texierwhen he published the second volume of hisDescription de l'Asie mineure.

In 1864–5, the German engineerCarl Humannvisited Pergamon for the first time. For the construction of the road from Pergamon toDikilifor which he had undertaken planning work and topographical studies, he returned in 1869 and began to focus intensively on the legacy of the city. In 1871, he organised a small expedition there under the leadership ofErnst Curtius.As a result of this short but intensive investigation, two fragments of a great frieze were discovered and transported toBerlinfor detailed analysis, where they received some interest, but not a lot. It is not clear who connected these fragments with the Great Altar in Pergamon mentioned byLucius Ampelius.However, when the archaeologistAlexander Conzetook over direction of the department of ancient sculpture at theRoyal Museums of Berlin,he quickly initiated a programme for the excavation and protection of the monuments connected to the sculpture, which were widely suspected to include the Great Altar.

The lower agora in 1902, during excavations

As a result of these efforts, Carl Humann, who had been carrying out low-level excavations at Pergamon for the previous few years and had discovered for example the architrave inscription of the Temple of Demeter in 1875, was entrusted with carry out work in the area of the altar of Zeus in 1878, where he continued to work until 1886. With the approval of theOttoman Empire,the reliefs discovered there were transported to Berlin, where thePergamon Museumwas opened for them in 1907. The work was continued by Conze, who aimed for the most complete possible exposure and investigation of the historic city and citadel that was possible. He was followed by the architectural historianWilhelm Dörpfeldfrom 1900 to 1911, who was responsible for the most important discoveries. Under his leadership the Lower Agora, the House of Attalos, the Gymnasion, and the Sanctuary of Demeter were brought to light.

The excavations were interrupted by theFirst World Warand were only resumed in 1927 under the leadership ofTheodor Wiegand,who remained in this post until 1939. He concentrated on further excavation of the upper city, the Asklepieion, and theRed Basilica.TheSecond World Waralso caused a break in work at Pergamon, which lasted until 1957. From 1957 to 1968,Erich Boehringerworked on the Asklepieion in particular, but also carried out important work on the lower city as a whole and performed survey work, which increased knowledge of the countryside surrounding the city. In 1971, after a short pause,Wolfgang Radtsucceeded him as leader of excavations and directed the focus of research on the residential buildings of Pergamon, but also on technical issues, like the water management system of the city which supported a population of 200,000 at its height. He also carried out conservation projects which were of vital importance for maintaining the material remains of Pergamon. Since 2006, the excavations have been led byFelix Pirson.

Most of the finds from the Pergamon excavations before the First World War were taken to the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, with a smaller portion going to theİstanbul Archaeological Museumafter it was opened in 1891. After the First World War theBergama Museumwas opened, which has received all finds discovered since then.

In May 2022, archaeologists announced the discovery of a 1,800-year-old well-preserved geometric patterned floormosaicaround the Red Basilica.

Main sights

Upper Acropolis

Pergamon Altar

Main article:Pergamon Altar

The Great Altar of Pergamon, on display in thePergamon MuseuminBerlin,Germany

The most famous structure from the city is the monumental altar, sometimes called the Great Altar, which was probably dedicated to Zeus and Athena. The foundations are still located in the Upper city, but the remains of the Pergamon frieze, which originally decorated it, are displayed in the Pergamon museum in Berlin, where the parts of the frieze taken to Germany have been installed in a partial reconstruction.

Foundations of the Pergamon altar

For the altar's construction, the required flat area was skillfully created through terracing, in order to allow it to be oriented in relation to the neighbouring Temple of Athena. The base of the altar measured around 36 x 33 metres and was decorated on the outside with a detailed depiction inhigh reliefof theGigantomachy,the battle between the Olympian gods and the Giants. The frieze is 2.30 metres high and has a total length of 113 metres, making it the second longest frieze surviving from antiquity, after theParthenon Friezein Athens. A 20-metre-wide (66 ft) staircase cut into the base on the western side leads up to the upper structure, which is surrounded by a colonnade, and consists of a colonnaded courtyard, separated from the staircase by a colonnade. The interior walls of this colonnade had a further frieze, depicting the life ofTelephus,the son of Heracles and mythical founder of Pergamon. This frieze is around 1.60 metres high and thus is clearly smaller than the outer frieze.

In theNew TestamentBook of Revelation,the faith of the Pergamon believers, who "dwell where Satan's throne is" is commended bythe author.Many scholars believe that the "seatofSatan"refers to the Pergamon Altar, due to its resemblance to a giganticthrone.

Theatre

Theatre of Pergamon, one of the steepest theatres in the world, has a capacity of 10,000 people and was constructed in the 3rd century BC.

The well-preservedTheatre of Pergamondates from the Hellenistic period and had space for around 10,000 people, in 78 rows of seats. At a height of 36 metres, it is the steepest of all ancient theatres. The seating area (koilon) is divided horizontally by two walkways, calleddiazomata,and vertically by 0.75-metre-wide (2.5 ft) stairways into seven sections in the lowest part of the theatre and six in the middle and upper sections. Below the theatre is a 247-metre-long (810 ft) and up to 17.4-metre-wide (57 ft) terrace, which rested on a high retaining wall and was framed on the long side by astoa.Coming from the Upper market, one could enter this from a tower-building at the south end. This terrace had no space for the circularorchestra,which was normal in a Greek theatre, so only a wooden stage building was built which could be taken down when there was no performance taking place. Thus, the view along the terrace to the Temple of Dionysos at the northern end was unimpeded. A marble stage building was only built in the 1st century BC. Additional theatres were built in the Roman period, one in the Roman new city and the other in the sanctuary of Asclepius.

Temple of Trajan (Traianeum)

The Traianeum

On the highest point of the citadel is the Temple ofTrajan,the Traianeum or Trajaneum. The Temple is also called the Temple ofZeus Philios,as both Zeus and Trajan were worshiped in the Temple, the former sharing it with the latter.The temple sits on a 2.9-metre-high (9.5 ft) podium on top of a vaulted terrace. The temple itself was aCorinthianperipterostemple, about 18 metres wide with six columns on the short sides and nine columns on the long sides, and two rows of columnsin antis.To the north, the area was closed off by a high stoa, while on the west and east sides it was surrounded by simple ashlar walls, until further stoas were inserted in Hadrian's reign.

Provincial coinsminted in Pergamon depicting Trajan sharing a temple with Zeus Philios

During the excavations fragments of statues of Trajan and Hadrian were found in the rubble of thecella,including theirportrait heads,as well as fragments of the cult statue of Zeus Philios.

Sanctuary of Dionysus at the north end of the theatre terrace

Temple of Dionysus

At Pergamon, Dionysus had the epithetKathegemon,'the guide',and was already worshiped in the last third of the 3rd century BC, when the Attalids made him the chief god of their dynasty.In the 2nd century BC, Eumenes II (probably) built a temple for Dionysus at the northern end of the theatre terrace. The marble temple sits on a podium, 4.5 metres above the level of the theatre terrace and was anIonicprostyletemple. Thepronaoswas four columns wide and two columns deep and was accessed by a staircase of twenty-five steps.Only a few traces of the Hellenistic structure survive. The majority of the surviving structure derives from a reconstruction of the temple which probably took place underCaracalla,or perhaps underHadrian.

Temple of Athena

Temple of Athena

Pergamon's oldest temple is a sanctuary of Athena from the 4th century BC. It was a north-facingDoricperipterostemple with six columns on the short side and ten on the long side and acelladivided into two rooms. The foundations, measuring around 12.70 x 21.80 metres, are still visible today. The columns were around 5.25 metres high, 0.75 metres in diameter, and the distance between the columns was 1.62 metres, so the colonnade was very light for a temple of this period. This is matched by the shape of thetriglyphs,which usually consist of a sequence of two triglyphs and twometopes,but are instead composed of three of triglyphs and three metopes. The columns of the temple are unfluted and retainedBoss age,but it is not clear whether this was a result of carelessness or incompleteness.

A two-story stoa surrounding the temple on three sides was added under Eumenes II, along with thepropylonin the southeast corner, which is now found, largely reconstructed, in thePergamon Museumin Berlin. The balustrade of the upper level of the north and east stoas was decorated with reliefs depicting weapons which commemorated Eumenes II's military victory. The construction mixed Ionic columns and Doric triglyphs (of which five triglyphs and metopes survive). In the area of the sanctuary, Attalos I and Eumenes II constructed victory monuments, most notably the Gallic dedications. The northern stoa seems to have been the site of the Library of Pergamon.

Library

Main article:Library of Pergamum

The Library of Pergamon was the second largest in the ancient Greek world after theLibrary of Alexandria,containing at least 200,000 scrolls. The location of the library building is not certain. Since the 19th century excavations, it has generally been identified with an annex of the northern stoa of the sanctuary of Athena in the Upper Citadel, which was built by Eumenes II.Inscriptions in the gymnasium which mention a library might indicate, however, that the building was located in that area.

Other structures

Reconstructed view of the Pergamon Acropolis,Friedrich Thierch,1882

Other notable structures still in existence on the upper part of the Acropolis include:

• The Royal palaces
• The Heroön – a shrine where the kings of Pergamon, particularly Attalus I and Eumenes II, were worshipped.
• The Upper Agora
• The Roman baths complex
• Diodorus Pasporos heroon
• Arsenals

The site is today easily accessible by theBergama Acropolis Gondolafrom the base station in northeastern Bergama.

Lower Acropolis

Gymnasium

Gymnasium area near Upper Terrace

A largegymnasiumarea was built in the 2nd century BC on the south side of the Acropolis. It consisted of three terraces, with the main entrance at the southeast corner of the lowest terrace. The lowest and southernmost terrace is small and almost free of buildings. It is known as the Lower Gymnasium and has been identified as the boys' gymnasium.The middle terrace was around 250 metres long and 70 metres wide at the centre. On its north side there was a two-story hall. In the east part of the terrace there was a smallprostyletemple in theCorinthian order.A roofedstadium,known as the Basement Stadium is located between the middle terrace and the upper terrace.

The upper terrace measured 150 x 70 metres square, making it the largest of the three terraces. It consisted of a courtyard surrounded by stoas and other structures, measuring roughly 36 x 74 metres. This complex is identified as apalaestraand had a theatre-shaped lecture hall beyond the northern stoa, which is probably of Roman date and a large banquet hall in the centre. Further rooms of uncertain function were accessible from the stoas. In the west was a south-facingIonicantae temple,the central sanctuary of the gymnasium. The eastern area was replaced with abath complexin Roman times. Further Roman baths were constructed to the west of the Ionic temple.

Sanctuary of Hera

Temple and sanctuary of Hera from the west

The sanctuary of Hera Basileia ('the Queen') lay north of the upper terrace of the gymnasium. Its structure sits on two parallel terraces, the south one about 107.4 metres above sea level and the north one about 109.8 metres above sea level. The Temple of Hera sat in the middle of the upper terrace, facing to the south, with a 6-metre-wide (20 ft)exedrato the west and a building whose function is very unclear to the east. The two terraces were linked by a staircase of eleven steps around 7.5 metres wide, descending from the front of the temple.

The temple was about 7 metres wide by 12 metres long, and sat on a three-stepped foundation. It was aDorictetrastyleprostyletemple, with threetriglyphsandmetopesfor each span in the entablature. All the other buildings in the sanctuary were made out oftrachyte,but the visible part of the temple was made of marble, or at least had a marble cladding. The base of the cult image inside the cella supported three cult statues.

The surviving remains of the inscription on the architrave indicate that the building was the temple of Hera Basileia and that it was erected by Attalus II.

Sanctuary of Demeter

Sanctuary of Demeter from the east

The Sanctuary of Demeter occupied an area of 50 x 110 metres on the middle level of the south slope of the citadel. The sanctuary was old; its activity can be traced back to the fourth century BC.

The sanctuary was entered through a Propylon from the east, which led to a courtyard surrounded by stoas on three sides. In the centre of the western half of this courtyard, stood theIonictemple ofDemeter,a straightforwardAntae temple,measuring 6.45 x 12.7 metres, with a porch in theCorinthian orderwhich was added in the time ofAntoninus Pius.The rest of the structure was of Hellenistic date, built in local marble and had a marble frieze decorated withbucrania.About 9.5 metres in front of the east-facing building, there was an altar, which was 7 metres long and 2.3 metres wide. The temple and the altar were built for Demeter by Philetaerus, his brother Eumenes, and their mother Boa.

In the east part of the courtyard, there were more than ten rows of seating laid out in front of the northern stoa for participants in the mysteries of Demeter. Roughly 800 initiates could fit in these seats.

Other structures

The lower part of the Acropolis also contains the following structures:

• the House of Attalus
• the Lower Agora and
• the Gate of Eumenes

At the foot of the Acropolis

Sanctuary of Asclepius (Asclepieion)

Main article:Asclepieion of Pergamon

View of Acropolis from the Sanctuary of Asclepius

Three kilometres (1.9 miles) south of the Acropolis (at 39° 7′ 9″ N, 27° 9′ 56″ E), down in the valley, is the Sanctuary ofAsclepius,the god of healing. The Sanctuary of Asclepius, more commonly left untranslatedAsclepieion(from Greek), or sometimes Asclepium (from Latin), was approached along an 820-metre (2,690 ft) colonnaded sacred way. In this place people with health problems could bathe in the water of the sacred spring, and in the patients' dreams Asclepius would appear in a vision to tell them how to cure their illness. Archeology has found many gifts and dedications that people would make afterwards, such as small terracotta body parts, no doubt representing what had been healed.Galen,the most famous doctor in the ancient Roman Empire and personal physician of EmperorMarcus Aurelius,worked in the Asclepieion for many years.

Notable extant structures in the Asclepieion include:

• the Roman theater
• the North Stoa
• the South Stoa
• the Temple of Asclepius
  • in some sources, referred to as the Temple of Zeus Asclepius, or the Temple of Zeus Asclepius Soter ("Soter" being an epithet meaning "savior"), since there is evidence thatL. Cuspius Pactumeius Rufinus,who constructed the temple, dedicated it to this new syncretic god
• a circular treatment center (sometimes known as the Temple of Telesphorus)
• a healing spring
• an underground passageway
• a library
• the Via Tecta (or the Sacred Way, which is a colonnaded street leading to the sanctuary)
• apropylon

Serapis Temple

TheRed Basilica

Pergamon's other notable structure is the great temple of the Egyptian godsIsisand/orSerapis,known today as theRed Basilica(orKızıl Avluin Turkish), about one kilometre (0.62 miles) south of the Acropolis at (39 7' 19 "N, 27 11' 1" E). It consists of a main building and two round towers within an enormoustemenosor sacred area. The temple towers flanking the main building had courtyards with pools used for ablutions at each end, flanked by stoas on three sides. The forecourt of the Temple of Isis/Sarapis is still supported by the 193-metre-wide (633-foot)Pergamon Bridge,the largest bridge substruction of antiquity.

According toChristian tradition,in the year 92Saint Antipas,the firstbishop of Pergamumordained byJohn the Apostle,was a victim of an early clash between Serapis worshippers andChristians.An angry mob is said to haveburned Saint Antipas alivein front of the Temple inside abrazen bull-likeincenseburner,which represented thebullgodApis.Hismartyrdomis one of the first recorded inChristian history,highlighted by theChristian Scriptureitself through themessagesent to thePergamon Churchin theBook of Revelation.

Panoramic view of Pergamon and the modern city ofBergama.

Infrastructure and housing

Pergamon is a good example of a city that expanded in a planned and controlled manner.

Philetairos transformed Pergamon from an archaic settlement into a fortified city. He or his successor Attalos I built a wall around the whole upper city, including the plateau to the south, the upper agora and some of the housing – further housing must have been found outside these walls. Because of the growth of the city, the streets were expanded and the city was monumentalised. Under Attalos I some minor changes were made to the city of Philetairos. During the reign of Eumenes II and Attalos II, there was a substantial expansion of the city.A new street network was created and a new city wall, with a monumental gatehouse called the Gate of Eumenes, was built south of the Acropolis. The wall, with numerous gates, now surrounded the entire hill, not just the upper city and the flat area to the southwest, all the way to the Selinus river. Numerous public buildings were constructed, as well as a new marketplace south of the acropolis and a new gymnasion in the east. The southeast slope and the whole western slope of the hill were now settled and opened up by streets.

The plan of Pergamon was affected by the extreme steepness of the site. As a result of this, the streets had to turn hairpin corners, so that the hill could be climbed as comfortably and quickly as possible. For the construction of buildings and laying out of the agoras, extensive work on the cliff-face and terracing had to be carried out. A consequence of the city's growth was the construction of new buildings over old ones, since there was not sufficient space.

Separate from this, a new area was laid out in Roman times, consisting of a whole new city west of the Selinus river, with all necessary infrastructure, including baths, theatres, stadiums, and sanctuaries. This Roman new city was able to expand without any city walls constraining it because of the absence of external threats.

Housing

Generally, most of the Hellenistic houses at Pergamon were laid out with a small, centrally-located and roughly square courtyard, with rooms on one or two sides of it. The main rooms are often stacked in two levels on the north side of the courtyard. A wide passage or colonnade on the north side of the courtyard often opened onto foyers, which enabled access to other rooms. An exact north–south arrangement of the city blocks was not possible because of the topographical situation and earlier construction. Thus the size and arrangement of the rooms differed from house to house. From the time of Philetairos, at the latest, this kind of courtyard house was common and it was ever more widespread as time went on, but not universal. Some complexes were designed asProstas houses,similar to designs seen atPriene.Others had wide columned halls in front of main rooms to the north. Especially in this latter type there is often a second story accessed by stairways. In the courtyards there were often cisterns, which captured rain water from the sloping roofs above. For the construction under Eumenes II, a city block of 35 x 45 m can be reconstructed, subject to significant variation as a result of the terrain.

Open spaces

From the beginning of the reign of Philetairos, civic events in Pergamon were concentrated on the Acropolis. Over time the so-called 'Upper agora' was developed at the south end of this. In the reign of Attalos I, a Temple of Zeus was built there.To the north of this structure there was a multi-story building, which propbably had a function connected to the marketplace.With progressive development of the open space, these buildings were demolished, while the Upper Agora itself took on a more strongly commercial function, while still a special space as a result of the temple of Zeus. In the course of the expansion of the city under Eumenes, the commercial character of the Upper Agora was further developed. The key signs of this development are primarily the halls built under Eumenes II, whose back chambers were probably used for trade.In the west, the 'West Chamber' was built which might have served as a market administration building.After these renovations, the Upper Agora thus served as a centre for trade and spectacle in the city.

Because of significant new construction in the immediate vicinity – the renovation of the Sanctuary of Athena and the Pergamon altar and the redesign of the neighbouring area - the design and organisational principle of the Upper Agora underwent a further change.Its character became much more spectacular and focussed on the two new structures looming over it, especially the altar which was visible on its terrace from below since the usualstoasurrounding it was omitted from the design.

The 80 m long and 55 m wide 'Lower Agora' was built under Eumenes II and was not significantly altered until Late Antiquity.As with the Upper Agora, the rectangular form of the agora was adapted to the steep terrain. The construction consisted in total of three levels. Of these the Upper Level and the 'Main Level' opened onto a central courtyard. On the lower level there were rooms only on the south and east sides because of the slope of the land, which led through a colonnade to the exterior of the space.The whole market area extended over two levels with a large columned hall in the centre, which contained small shop spaces and miscellaneous rooms.

Streets and bridges

The course of the main street, which winds up the hill to the Acropolis with a series of hairpin turns, is typical of the street system of Pergamon. On this street were shops and warehouses.The surface of the street consisted of andesite blocks up to 5 metres wide, 1 metre long and 30 cm deep. The street included a drainage system, which carried the water down the slope. Since it was the most important street of the city, the quality of the material used in its construction was very high.

Roman bridge of Pergamon

Philetairos' design of the city was shaped above all by circumstantial considerations. Only under Eumenes II was this approach discarded and the city plan begins to show signs of an overall plan.Contrary to earlier attempts at an orthogonal street system, a fan-shaped design seems to have been adopted for the area around the gymnasium, with streets up to four metres wide, apparently intended to enable effective traffic flow. In contrast to it, Philetairos' system of alleys was created unsystematically, although the topic is still under investigation.Where the lay of the land prevented the laying of a street, small alleys were installed as connections instead. In general, therefore, there are large, broad streets (plateiai) and small, narrow connecting streets (stenopoi).

The nearly 200 metre widePergamon Bridgeunder the forecourt of theRed Basilicain the centre of Bergama is the largest bridge substruction from antiquity.

Water supply

The inhabitants of Pergamon were supplied with water by an effective system. In addition to cisterns, there was a system of nine pipes (seven Hellenistic ceramic pipes and two open Roman channels. The system provided around 30,000–35,000 cubic metres of water per day.

The Madradağ aqueduct was a ceramic pipe with a diameter of 18 cm which already brought water to the citadel from a source over 40 kilometres away in the Madradağ mountains at 1174 m above sea level in the Hellenistic period. Their significance for architectural history lies in the form of the last kilometres from the mountains through a 200-metre-deep (660 ft) valley to the Akropolis. The pipe consisted of three channels, which ended 3 km north of the citadel, before reaching the valley, and emptied into a pool, which included a doublesedimentation tank.This pool was 35 metres higher than the summit of the citadel. The pipe from the pool to the Acropolis consisted of only a single channel – a lead pipe pressurised to 200mH2O.The water was able to cross the valley between the pool and the citadel with the help of this pressurised conduit. It functioned as acommunicating vessel,such that the water rose to the height of the citadel on its own as a result of the pressurised pipe.

Inscriptions

Greek inscriptions discovered at Pergamon include the rules of the town clerks,the so-called Astynomoi inscription, which has added to understanding of Greek municipal laws and regulations, including how roads were kept in repair, regulations regarding the public and private water supply and lavatories.

Notable people

• Epigonus(3rd century BC), Greek sculptor.
• Andronicus of Pergamum(2nd century BC), Attalid ambassador toRome.
• Biton of Pergamon(2nd or 3rd century BC), Greek writer and engineer.
• Hegesinus of Pergamon(c. 160 BC), Academic philosopher.
• Sosus of Pergamon(2nd century BC), Greek mosaic artist.
• Apollodorus(1st century BC), rhetor and teacher toAugustus.
• Cratippus of Pergamon(1st century BC), Peripatetic philosopher.
• Antipas of Pergamum(1st century AD), Christian martyr and saint.
• Aristocles (1st century AD), a Greek sophist
• Aelius Nicon(2nd century AD), Greek architect and builder.
• Aeschrion of Pergamon(2nd century AD), physician and tutor toGalen.
• Galen(c. 129–200/216 AD), Greek physician.
• Oribasius(c. 320-403 AD), Greek physician
• Aedesius(4th century), Neoplatonic philosopher
• Sosipatra(4th century), Neoplatonic philosopher
• Telephus, a Greek grammarian

See also

• Allianoi
• List of ancient Greek cities

Bibliography

• Grewe, Klaus; Özis, Ünal (1994). "Die antiken Flußüberbauungen von Pergamon und Nysa (Türkei)".Antike Welt(in German).25(4): 348–352.
• Hansen, Esther V. (1971).The Attalids of Pergamon.Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press.ISBN0-8014-0615-3.
• Kekeç, Tevhit (1989).Pergamon.Istanbul: Hitit Color.ISBN9789757487012.
• Kosmetatou, Elizabeth (2003). "The Attalids of Pergamon". In Erskine, Andrew (ed.).A Companion to the Hellenistic World.Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 159–174.ISBN1-4051-3278-7.
• McEvedy, Colin (2012).Cities of the Classical World.Penguin Global.ISBN9781846144288.
• Nagy, Gregory (1998). "The Library of Pergamon as a Classical Model". In Koester, Helmut (ed.).Pergamon: Citadel of the Gods.Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International. pp. 185–232.
• Nagy, Gregory (2007)."The Idea of the Library as a Classical Model for European Culture".Center for Hellenic Studies.
• Tucker, Jack (2012).Innocents Return Abroad: Exploring Ancient Sites in Western Turkey.Jack Tucker.ISBN9781478343585.
• Xenophon.Xenophon in Seven Volumes.Translated by Brownson, Carleton L. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.vol. 1 (1918), vol. 2 (1921), vol. 3 (1922).

Further reading

• Hansen, Esther Violet (1971).The Attalids of Pergamon(2nd revised and expanded ed.). Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
• Radt, Wolfgang (1984).Pergamon, Archeological Guide(3rd ed.). Istanbul: Türkiye Turing Ve Otomobil Kurumu.
• Shipley, Graham (2000).The Greek world after Alexander 323–30 BC.London: Routledge.
• Walbank, Frank W. (1993).The Hellenistic world(Revised ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Altertümer von Pergamon

The archaeological reports from Pergamon are published in German asAltertümer von Pergamon(de Gruyter, Berlin).

• Conze, Alexander(1912)."Stadt und Landschaft"[City and Landscape].Altertümer von Pergamon.I(1). Berlin: de Gruyter.
• Volume I 2: Alexander Conze:Stadt und Landschaft[City and Landscape] (1913)Digitisation
• Volume I 3: Alexander Conze (ed.):Stadt und Landschaft[City and Landscape] 3:Friedrich Graeber:Die Wasserleitungen[The Aqueducts] (1913)DigitisationDigitisation of the tables for I, 1–3
• Volume I 4:Günther Garbrecht:Die Wasserversorgung von Pergamon[The Water Supply System of Pergamon] (2001)
• Volume II:Richard Bohn:Das Heiligtum der Athena Polias Nikephoros[The Sanctuary of Athena Polias Nikephoros] (1885)DigitisationDigitisation of the tables
• Volume III 1:Jakob Schrammen:Der grosse Altar – der obere Markt[The Great Altar - The Upper Agora] (1906)DigitisationDigitisation of the tables
• Volume III 2:Hermann Winnefeld:Die Friese des groszen Altars[The Frieze of the Great Altar] (1910)DigitisationDigitisation of the tables
• Volume IV: Richard Bohn:Die Theater-Terrasse[The Theatre Terrace] (1896)DigitisationDigitisation of the tables
• Volume V 1:Georg Kawerau–Theodor Wiegand:Die Paläste der Hochburg[The Palace of the Citadel] (1930)DigitisationDigitisation of the tables
• Volume V 2:Hermann Stiller:Das Traianeum[The Trajaneum]. Berlin 1895DigitisationDigitisation of the tables
• Volume VI: Paul Schazmann:Das Gymnasion. Der Tempelbezirk der Hera Basileia[The Gymnasium. The Temple Area of Hera Basileia] (1923)DigitisationDigitisation of the tables
• Volume VII 1:Franz Winter:Die Skulpturen mit Ausnahme der Altarreliefs[The Sculpture, aside from the Altar Reliefs] (1908)Digitisation
• Volume VII 2: Franz Winter:Die Skulpturen mit Ausnahme der Altarreliefs[The Sculpture, aside from the Altar Reliefs] (1908)DigitisationDigitisation of the tables
• Volume VIII 1:Max Fränkel(ed.):Die Inschriften von Pergamon[The Inscriptions of Pergamon] (1890)Digitisation
• Volume VIII 2: Max Fränkel (ed.):Die Inschriften von Pergamon[The Inscriptions of Pergamon] (1895)Digitisation
• Volume VIII 3:Christian Habicht,Michael Wörrle:Die Inschriften des Asklepieions[The Inscriptions of the Asclepium] (1969)
• Volume IX:Erich Boehringer–Friedrich Krauss:Das Temenos für den Herrscherkult[The Temenos for the Ruler Cult] (1937)
• Volume X: Ákos von Szalay – Erich Boehringer et al.:Die hellenistischen Arsenale. Garten der Königin[The Hellenistic Arsenal. Garden of the Queen] (1937)
• Volume XI 1:Oskar Ziegenaus,Gioia de Luca:Das Asklepieion. Der südliche Temenosbezirk in hellenistischer und frührömischer Zeit[The Asclepium. The North Temple Area and Surrounding Complex in the Hellenistic and Early Roman Periods] (1968)
• Volume XI 2: Oskar Ziegenaus, Gioia de Luca:Das Asklepieion. Der nördliche Temenosbezirk und angrenzende Anlagen in hellenistischer und frührömischer Zeit[The Asclepium. The North Temple Area and Surrounding Complex in the Hellenistic and Early Roman Periods] (1975)
• Volume XI 3: Oskar Ziegenaus:Das Asklepieion. Die Kultbauten aus römischer Zeit an der Ostseite des Heiligen Bezirks[The Asclepium. The Cult Buildings of the Roman Period on the East Side of the Sacred Area] (1981)
• Volume XI 4: Gioia de Luca:Das Asklepieion. Via Tecta und Hallenstraße. Die Funde[The Asclepium. Via Tecta and Stoas] (1984)
• Volume XI 5:Adolf Hoffmann,Gioia de Luca:Das Asklepieion. Die Platzhallen und die zugehörigen Annexbauten in römischer Zeit[The Asclepium. The Halls and Associated Annexes in the Roman Period] (2011)
• Volume XII:Klaus Nohlen,Wolfgang Radt:Kapıkaya. Ein Felsheiligtum bei Pergamon[Kapıkaya. A Cliff-Sanctuary near Pergamon] (1978)
• Volume XIII: Carl Helmut Bohtz:Das Demeter-Heiligtum[The Sanctuary of Demeter] (1981)
• Volume XIV: Doris Pinkwart, Wolf Stammnitz,Peristylhäuser westlich der Unteren Agora[Peristyle Houses west of the Lower Agora] (1984)
• Volume XV 1: Meinrad N. Filges, Wolfgang Radt:Die Stadtgrabung. Das Heroon[The City Excavation. The Heroon] (1986)
• Volume XV 2:Klaus Rheidt:Die Stadtgrabung. Die byzantinische Wohnstadt[The City Excavation. The Byzantine Residential City] (1991)
• Volume XV 3:Ulrike Wulf:Die Stadtgrabung. Die hellenistischen und römischen Wohnhäuser von Pergamon. Unter Berücksichtigung der Anlagen zwischen der Mittel- und der Ostgasse[The City Excavation. The Hellenistic and Roman Residential Housing of Pergamon. In Light of Investigation of the Areas between Central and East Streets] (1999)
• Volume XV 4: Holger Schwarzer:Das Gebäude mit dem Podiensaal in der Stadtgrabung von Pergamon. Studien zu sakralen Banketträumen mit Liegepodien in der Antike[The building with the Podium-hall in the City Excavation of Pergamon. Studies of Sacral Banqueting Halls with Raised Platforms in Antiquity] (2008)
• Volume XVI 1:Manfred Klinkott:Die byzantinischen Befestigungsanlagen von Pergamon mit ihrer Wehr- und Baugeschichte[The Byzantine Fortifications of Pergamon with their Military and Architectural History] (2001)

External links

• Rosa Valderrama, "Pergamum":brief history
• Photographic tour of old and new Pergamon, including the museum
• The Theatre at Pergamon. The Ancient Theatre Archive. Theatre specifications and virtual reality tour of theatre
• 3D-visualization and photos of Pergamon
• DK Fennell (July 8, 2016)."The Seductive Elegance and Startling Cruelty of Greece's Baroque Age: Power, Pathos and Prestige in Pergamon and Other Hellenistic Kingdoms".Hidden Cause, Visible Effects.