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Perry Expedition

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An 1854 Japanese print depicting the expedition

ThePerry Expedition(Japanese:Hắc thuyền tới hàng,kurofune raikō,"Arrival of theBlack Ships") was a diplomatic and military expedition in two separate voyages (1852–1853 and 1854–1855) to theTokugawa shogunateby warships of theUnited States Navy.The goals of this expedition included exploration, surveying, and the establishment ofdiplomatic relationsand negotiation of trade agreements with various nations of the region. Opening contact with the government ofJapanwas considered a top priority of the expedition, and was one of the key reasons for its inception.

The expedition was commanded byCommodoreMatthew Calbraith Perry,under orders fromPresidentMillard Fillmore.Perry's primary goal was to force an end to Japan's 220-year-oldpolicy of isolationand to open Japanese ports to American trade, through the use ofgunboat diplomacyif necessary. The Perry Expedition led directly to the establishment of diplomatic relations between Japan and thewesternGreat Powers,and eventually to the collapse of the rulingTokugawa shogunateand therestoration of the Emperor.Following the expedition, Japan's burgeoning trade routes with the world led to the cultural trend ofJaponisme,in which aspects of Japanese culture influenced art inEuropeandAmerica.

Background

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Commodore Matthew Perry

Growing commerce between America andChina,the presence of Americanwhalersin waters off Japan, and the increasing monopolization of potentialcoaling stationsby European colonial powers inAsiawere all contributing factors in the decision by President Fillmore to dispatch an expedition to Japan. The Americans were also driven by concepts ofmanifest destinyand the desire to impose the "benefits" ofWestern civilizationand theChristian religionon what they perceived as backward Asian nations.[1]

By the early 19th century, the Japanese policy of isolation was increasingly under challenge. In 1844, DutchKing William IIsent a letter urging Japan to end the isolation policy on its own before change would be forced from the outside.[2]Between 1790 and 1853, at least twenty-seven U.S. ships, including three warships, visited Japan, only to be turned away.

There were increased sightings and incursions of foreign ships into Japanese waters, and this led to considerable internal debate in Japan on how best to meet this potential threat to Japan's economic and political sovereignty. In May 1851, American Secretary of StateDaniel Websterauthorized CommodoreJohn H. Aulick,commander of theAmerican East India Squadron,to attempt to return seventeenshipwreckedJapanese sailors residing inSan Francisco,which might provide the opportunity for opening commercial relations with Japan. On May 10, 1851, Webster drafted a letter addressed to the "Japanese Emperor" with assurances that the expedition had no religious purpose but was only to request "friendship and commerce" and supplies of coal needed by American ships en route to China.[3]

The letter also boasted ofAmerican expansion across the North American continentand its technical prowess and was signed by President Fillmore. However, Aulick became involved in a diplomatic row with a Brazilian diplomat and quarrels with the captain of his flagship, and was relieved of his command before he could undertake the Japan expedition.[4]His replacement, CommodoreMatthew Calbraith Perry,was a senior-ranking officer in the United States Navy, and had extensive diplomatic experience.

Preparation

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Perry was well aware of the difficulties involved in attempting to establish relations with Japan and initially protested that he would prefer to command theMediterranean Squadronof the U.S. Navy instead of being assigned to yet another attempt to open Japan, which he considered unlikely to succeed. Relevant precedents included:

  • From 1797 to 1809, several American ships traded inNagasakiunder theDutch flagupon the request of the Dutch, who were not able to send their own ships because of their conflict with theUnited Kingdomduring theNapoleonic Wars.
  • In 1837, an American businessman inCanton (Guangzhou)namedCharles W. Kingsaw an opportunity to open trade by trying to return to Japan three Japanese sailors (among them,Otokichi) who had been shipwrecked a few years before on the coast ofWashington.He went toUraga ChannelwithMorrison,an American merchant ship. The ship was attacked several times and sailed back without completing its mission.
  • In 1846, CommanderJames Biddle,anchored inEdo Bayon an official mission with two ships, including one warship armed with seventy-two cannons, asking for ports to be opened for trade, but his requests for a trade agreement remained unsuccessful.[5]
  • In 1849, CaptainJames Glynnsailed to Nagasaki, leading at last to the first successful negotiation by an American with Japan. James Glynn recommended to theUnited States Congressthat negotiations to open Japan be backed up by ademonstration of force,thus paving the way for Perry's expedition.[6]

In advance of his voyage, Perry read widely amongst available books about Japan. His research also included consultation with the renownedJapanologistPhilipp Franz von Siebold.Siebold spent eight years working, teaching, and studying at the isolated Dutch island-trading post ofDejimain Nagasaki harbour before returning toLeidenin the Netherlands.[7]Perry also demanded greater latitude in his orders from Webster, a demand the Secretary of State granted just before his death in October 1852. Perry thus sailed for Japan with "full and discretionary powers," including possible use of force if the Japanese tried to treat him as they had the unfortunate Commodore Biddle.[8]Perry also refused to allow any professional diplomats to accompany the expedition. He asked theGermanpainterWilhelm Heineand pioneerdaguerreotypephotographer Eliphalet M. Brown Jr. to join the expedition as official artists. Agricultural specialist Dr. James Morrow was assigned by the US State Department. Several Japanese castaways were also taken on as unofficial interpreters.

The expedition was assigned the steam warshipsMississippi,Susquehanna,andPowhatan,the armed store steamshipsLe xing ton,Supply,andSouthampton,and the sailing sloopsMacedonian,Plymouth,andSaratoga.To command his fleet, Perry chose officers with whom he had served in theMexican–American War.CommanderFranklin Buchananwas captain ofSusquehannaandJoel Abbotwas captain ofMacedonian.Commander Henry A. Adams became the Commodore's chief of staff with the title "Captain of the Fleet". MajorJacob Zeilin(future commandant of theUnited States Marine Corps) was the ranking Marine officer, and was stationed onMississippi.Perry also received permission to take government stores as gifts for the natives, especially obsolete small arms. These included 40M1819 Hall rifles(with 4,000 cartridges), 20 percussion pistols (with 2,000 cartridges), 20 artillery swords, 20 muskets with Maynard percussion locks and 40 light cavalry sabers, as well as 100Colt revolvers.

First visit to Japan, 1852–1853

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AJapanese woodblock printof Perry (center) and other high-ranking American seamen.

Perry chose the black-hulled paddle-wheeledMississippias hisflagship,and clearedHampton Roads,Virginiaon 24 November 1852.[9]Perry made port calls atMadeira(December 11–15),St Helena(January 10–11),Cape Town(January 24 – February 3),Mauritius(February 18–28),Ceylon(March 10–15),Singapore(March 25–29), andMacaoandHong Kong(April 7–28). There he met with American-born SinologistSamuel Wells Williams(who had been to Japan with theMorrisonin 1837), who providedChinese-languagetranslations of Perry's official letters, and rendezvoused withPlymouthandSaratoga.He continued toShanghai(May 4–17), where he met with the Dutch-born American diplomat Anton L. C. Portman, who translated his official letters into theDutch language,and rendezvoused withSusquehanna.

Perry then switched his flag toSusquehannaand called on theRyukyu islandsfrom May 17–26. Ignoring the claims ofSatsuma Domainto the islands, as well as his own orders, he threatened and bluffed local authorities by threatening to attack with 200 troops unless he were allowed trading rights and land for a coaling station. Perry landed his Marines, whom he drilled on the beach for hours at a time, and demanded an audience with the Ryukyu KingShō TaiatShuri Castle.Knowing that his every action would be reported to Japanese authorities inEdo,Perry carefully avoided meeting with low-ranked officials and made much use of military ceremony and shipboard hospitality to demonstrate both American military power and the peaceful intent of his expedition.[10]Perry left with promises that the islands would be completely open to trade with the United States. Continuing on theOgasawara Islandsin mid-June, Perry met with the local inhabitants and even purchased a plot of land.

Threat of force and negotiation

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Commodore Matthew Perry'sBlack Ship,from theBrooklyn Museum.

Perry finally reachedUragaat the entrance toEdo Bayin Japan on 8 July 1853. His fleet at this time consisted of four vessels:Susquehanna,Mississippi,PlymouthandSaratoga.As he arrived, Perry ordered his ships to steam past Japanese lines towards the capital ofEdo,and position their guns towards the town of Uraga.[11]He also fired blank shots from his 73 cannons, which he claimed was in celebration of the American Independence Day. Perry's ships were equipped with newPaixhans shell guns,cannons capable of wreaking great explosive destruction with every shell.[12][13]

The American ships were almost surrounded by Japanese guard boats; however, Perry ordered that any attempt at boarding was to be repelled. One boat carried a large sign in French ordering the American fleet to depart immediately. On 9 July, ayorikifrom theUraga bugyō,Nakajima Saburosuke, accompanied by interpreterHori Tatsunosuke,rowed out toSusquehanna,but were at first refused permission to come on board. After some negotiation, they were permitted to board, where they displayed the order that no foreign ships were allowed into Japanese ports. Perry remained in his cabin and refused to meet them, sending word through his officers that as he carried a letter from the President of the United States, he would only deal with officials of sufficient stature and authority.[2]

On 10 July,yorikiKayama Eizaemon, pretending to be theUraga bugyō,called onSusquehannaand was allowed to meet Captain Franklin, whom he advised to travel toNagasaki,as this was the designated port for all foreign contact. Kayama was told that unless a suitable official came to receive the document, Perry would land troops and march on Edo, to deliver the letter in person. Kayama asked for three days in order to respond. The actualUraga bugyō,Ido Hiromichi,sent a report to theshōgunand advised that his defenses were totally inadequate to repel the Americans by force.[2]

In the meantime, Perry began a campaign of intimidation, by sending boats to survey the surrounding area, and threatened to use force if the Japanese guard boats around the American squadron did not disperse.[11]He also presented the Japanese with awhite flagand a letter which told them that in case they chose combat, the Americans would necessarily vanquish them.[14][15]

The Japanese government was paralyzed due to the incapacitation by illness ofShōgunTokugawa Ieyoshiand by political indecision on how to handle the unprecedented threat to the nation's capital. On 11 July, seniorrōjūAbe Masahirotemporized, deciding that simply accepting a letter from the Americans would not constitute a violation of Japanese sovereignty. The decision was conveyed to Uraga, and Perry was asked to move his fleet slightly southwest to the beach atKurihama(in modern-dayYokosuka), where he was allowed to land on 14 July.[16] Perry went ashore with considerable pomp, landing with 250 sailors and Marines in 15 ships’ boats after a 13-gun salute fromSusquehanna.Major Zeilin's Marines presented arms, and a band played "Hail Columbia".President Fillmore's letter was formally received byhatamotoToda "Izu-no-kami" Ujiyoshiand by Ido "Iwami-no-kami" Hiromichi. Perry's squadron eventually departed on 17 July for the Chinese coast, promising to return for a reply.[17]

Odaibabattery at the entrance of Tokyo, built in 1853–54 to prevent an American incursion

After Perry's departure, an extensive debate ensued within the shogunal court on how to respond to the American's implied threats.ShōgunTokugawa Ieyoshidied days after Perry's departure, and was succeeded by his sickly young son,Tokugawa Iesada,leaving effective administration in the hands of the Council of Elders (rōjū) led by Abe Masahiro. Abe felt that it was currently impossible for Japan to resist the American demands by military force, and yet was reluctant to take any action on his own authority for such an unprecedented situation. Attempting to legitimize any decision taken, Abe polled all of thedaimyōsfor their opinions. This was the first time that the Tokugawa shogunate had allowed its decision-making to be a matter of public debate, and had the unforeseen consequence of portraying the shogunate as weak and indecisive.[18]

The results of the poll also failed to provide Abe with an answer, as of the 61 known responses, 19 were in favor of accepting the American demands, and 19 were equally opposed. Of the remainder, 14 gave vague responses expressing concern of possible war, 7 suggested making temporary concessions and two advised that they would simply go along with whatever was decided.[19]The only universal recommendation was that steps be taken immediately to bolster Japan's coastal defenses. Fortifications were hurriedly built close to current dayOdaibain order to protect Edo from a subsequent American naval incursion.

Second visit to Japan, 1854

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A miniature steam locomotive which was presented by the expedition and exhibited to great acclaim.

Although he had told the Japanese that he would return the following year, Perry soon learned that RussianVice-AdmiralYevfimiy Putyatinhad called in at Nagasaki shortly after he departed from Edo Bay, and had spent a month attempting to force the Japanese to sign a treaty before his return. He also was told by both the British and French that they intended to accompany him to Japan in the spring to ensure that the Americans did not obtain any exclusive privileges. Perry thus returned on 13 February 1854 with eight vessels and 1600 men. The fleet had lostPlymouthof the original four, and now also included:Le xing ton,Macedonian,Powhatan,Vandalia,andSouthampton.Supplyarrived loaded with coal and stores on 19 March, bringing the total strength to nine.[20]

By the time of Perry's return, the Tokugawa shogunate had decided to accept virtually all the demands in Fillmore's letter. However, negotiators procrastinated for weeks over the site for negotiations, with Perry insisting on Edo, and the Japanese offering various other locations. Perry eventually lost his temper and threatened to bring 100 ships (more than the actual size of the US Navy at the time) within 20 days to war on Japan. Both sides eventually compromised on the tiny village ofYokohama,where a purpose-built hall was erected. Perry landed on 8 March with 500 sailors and Marines in 27 ships' boats, with three bands playing "The Star-Spangled Banner."[21]

Three weeks of negotiation ensued, accompanied by diplomatic gestures such as the exchange of state gifts. The Americans presented the Japanese with a miniaturesteam locomotive,a telegraph apparatus, various agricultural tools, and small arms, as well as one hundred gallons of whiskey, clocks, stoves, and books about the United States. The Japanese responded with gold-lacquered furniture and boxes, bronze ornaments, silk and brocade garments, porcelain goblets, and upon learning of Perry's personal hobby, a collection of seashells. Cultural displays were also performed on both sides, with the American sailors aboard thePowhatanputting on aminstrel show,while a number of high-rankingsumowrestlers performed feats of strength and held exhibition matches.[21]

Finally, on 31 March, Perry signed theConvention of Kanagawawhich opened the ports ofShimodaandHakodateto American ships, provided for care of shipwrecked sailors, and the establishment of an American consulate in Shimoda.[22]The treaty was signed on the Japanese side byHayashi Akira.Perry then dispatched theSaratogahome with the signed treaty, while the rest of the squadron went to survey Hakodate, Shimoda and the site of the future consulate. After departing from Shimoda, the fleet returned to the Ryukyu Islands, where Perry swiftly drafted the "Compact between the United States and the Ryukyu Kingdom," which was formally signed on 11 July 1854.

Return to the United States, 1855

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A bust of Matthew Perry inShimoda, Shizuoka.

After Perry returned to the United States in 1855,Congressvoted to grant him a reward of $20,000 (~$737,000 in 2022) in appreciation of his work in Japan. Perry used part of this money to prepare and publish a report of the expedition in three volumes, titledNarrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan.This was written byFrancis L. Hawksunder Perry's supervision, using the written materials compiled by Perry and his colleagues during the expedition.[23]It was first presented as a report to theUnited States Senatein 1856 and later published commercially. Perry was also promoted to the rank ofrear-admiralon the retired list (when his health began to fail) as a reward for his services.[24]He was known to have suffered severearthritisthat left him in frequent pain, that on occasion prevented him from fulfilling his duties.[25]

Perry spent his last years preparing for publication of his account of the Japan expedition, announcing its completion on 28 December 1857. Two days later he was detached from his last post, an assignment to the Naval Efficiency Board. He died awaiting further orders on 4 March 1858 inNew York City,ofrheumatismthat had spread to the heart, compounded by complications ofgout.[26]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^W. G. Beasley,The Meiji Restoration,p. 88.
  2. ^abcW. G. Beasley,The Meiji Restoration,p. 78
  3. ^"Aulick, John H. (ca. 1791–1873)".encyclopediavirginia.org.RetrievedJul 12,2020.
  4. ^"Aulick, John H. (ca. 1791–1873)".encyclopediavirginia.org.RetrievedJul 12,2020.
  5. ^Sewell, pp. xxxiv–xxxv, xlix, lvi.
  6. ^English Wikipedia on Preble Logbook
  7. ^Sewall, p. xxxviii.
  8. ^J. W. Hall,Japan,p. 207.
  9. ^McWilliams, Jane (2011).Annapolis, City on the Severn: A History.Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 158.ISBN978-0-8018-9659-0.
  10. ^Schroeder, John (2014). Thompson, Antonio (ed.).The Routledge Handbook of American Military and Diplomatic History.Routledge. p. Chapter 29.ISBN9781317813347.
  11. ^abBeasley, William G. (2002).The Perry Mission to Japan, 1853–1854.Psychology Press.ISBN9781903350133.RetrievedJul 12,2020– via Google Books.
  12. ^Millis, Walter (1981).Arms and Men: A Study in American Military History.Rutgers University Press.ISBN9780813509310.Retrieved2015-03-09– via Google Books.
  13. ^Walworth, Arthur (2008).Black Ships Off Japan: The Story of Commodore Perry's Expedition.Read Books.ISBN9781443728508– via Google Books.
  14. ^"Among the items presented to the Japanese were a white flag and a letter from Perry. The letter attempted to intimidate Japanese officials by explaining that in the event the Japanese elected war rather than negotiation, they could use the white flag to sue for peace, since victory would naturally belong to the Americans"Matthew Calbraith Perry: antebellum sailor and diplomatby John H. Schroeder p. 286 Note 44
  15. ^The economic aspects of the history of the civilization of JapanYosaburō Takekoshi pp. 285–286[1]
  16. ^"Perry Ceremony Today; Japanese and U. S. Officials to Mark 100th Anniversary".The New York Times,July 14, 1953
  17. ^Sewall, pp. 183–195.
  18. ^J. W. Hall,Japan,p. 211.
  19. ^W. G. Beasley,The Meiji Restoration,s. 90–95.
  20. ^Hawks, p. 401
  21. ^abHawks, p. 431, 438
  22. ^Sewall, pp. 243–264.
  23. ^James C. Bradford (2013).Captains of the Old Steam Navy: Makers of the American Naval Tradition 1840–1880.Naval Institute Press. p. 25, note 22.ISBN978-1-59114-054-2.
  24. ^Sewall, p. lxxxvii.
  25. ^"Commodore Perry's Expedition to Japan".Ben Griffiths 2005.RetrievedSeptember 12,2009.
  26. ^Morison, Samuel Eliot. (1967).'Old Bruin' Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perryp. 431.

References

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volume 1,volume 2,volume 3,volume 4at the Internet Archive
  • Houchins, Chang-su. (1995).Artifacts of diplomacy: Smithsonian collections from Commodore Matthew Perry's Japan Expedition (1853–1854).Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
  • Morison, Samuel Eliot.(1967).Old Bruin: Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry, 1796–1858.Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
  • Morrow, James, and Allan B. Cole. (1947).A Scientist with Perry in Japan: the Journal of Dr. James Morrow. Edited by Allan B. Cole.Chapel Hill: the University of North Carolina Press.
  • Schroeder, John. (2001).Matthew Calbraith Perry.Naval Institute Press.
  • Sewall, John S. (1905).The Logbook of the Captain's Clerk: Adventures in the China Seas,Bangor, Maine: Chas H. Glass & Co. [reprint by Chicago: R.R. Donnelly & Sons, 1995]ISBN054820912X.

Further reading

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  • Clark, Paul Hendrix.The Perry Expedition and the "Opening of Japan to the West," 1853–1873: A Short History with Documents(Hackett, 2020)online.
  • Fullilove, Courtney. "Gift and Gunboat: Meanings of Exchange in the Perry Expedition."Diplomatic History42.1 (2018): 90–108.
  • Wittner, David G.Commodore Matthew Perry and the Perry expedition to Japan(The Rosen Publishing Group, 2004).

Primary sources

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  • Hones, Sheila, and Yasuo Endo. "History, distance and text: narratives of the 1853–1854 Perry expedition to Japan."Journal of Historical Geography32.3 (2006): 563–578.
  • Macleod, Julia H., et al. "Three Letters Relating to the Perry Expedition to Japan."Huntington Library Quarterly(1943): 228–237.online
  • Perry, Matthew Calbraith, and Robert Tomes.The Americans in Japan: an abridgment of the Government narrative of the US expedition to Japan, under Commodore Perry(D. Appleton & Company, 1857)online.
  • Williams, Samuel Wells.A journal of the Perry Expedition to Japan (1853–1854)(Kelly & Walsh, 1910).online
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