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Petra

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This article is about the ancient Jordanian city of Petra. For other uses, seePetra (disambiguation).
Petra (𐢛𐢚𐢓𐢈‎)
From top, left to right: the Urn Tombs, en-Nejr theatre,Al-Khazneh(Treasury),Qasr al-Binttemple and view ofAd Deir(Monastery) trail
LocationMa'an Governorate,Jordan
Coordinates30°19′43″N35°26′31″E/ 30.32861°N 35.44194°E/30.32861; 35.44194
Area264 km2(102 sq mi)[1]
Elevation810 m (2,657 ft)
BuiltPossibly as early as the 5th century BC[2]
Visitors1,135,300 (in 2019)
Governing bodyPetra Region Authority
Websitewww.visitpetra.jo
Petra is located in Jordan
Petra
Location of Petra (𐢛𐢚𐢓𐢈‎) in Jordan
CriteriaCultural: i, iii, iv
Reference326
Inscription1985 (9thSession)
Area26,171 ha

Petra(Arabic:ٱلْبَتْراء,romanized:Al-Batrāʾ;Greek:Πέτρα,"Rock" ), originally known to its inhabitants asRaqmu(Nabataean:𐢛𐢚𐢒‎ or𐢛𐢚𐢓𐢈‎, *Raqēmō),[3][4]is a historic and archaeological city in southernJordan.Famous for itsrock-cut architectureand water conduit system, Petra is also called the "Rose City" because of the colour of thesandstonefrom which it is carved.[5]The city is one of theNew 7 Wonders of the Worldand aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site.[6]

The area around Petra has been inhabited from as early as 7000 BC,[7]and was settled by theNabataeans,a nomadicArabpeople, in the 4th century BC. Petra would later become the capital city of theNabataean Kingdomin the second century BC.[7][8]The Nabataeans invested in Petra's proximity to theincense trade routesby establishing it as a major regional trading hub, which gained them considerable revenue.[7][9]Unlike their enemies, the Nabataeans were accustomed to living in the barren deserts and thus were able to defend their kingdom. They were particularly skillful inagriculture,stone carving,andrainwater harvesting.

Petra flourished in the 1st century AD, when itsAl-Khaznehstructure, possibly themausoleumof Nabataean kingAretas IV,was constructed, and its population peaked at an estimated 20,000 inhabitants.[10]Nabataea fell to the Romans in 106 AD, who annexed and renamed it asArabia Petraea.[11]Petra's importance declined as sea trade routes emerged, and after anearthquake in 363destroyed many structures. In theByzantine era,several Christian churches were built, but the city continued to decline and, by the early Islamic era, it was abandoned except for a handful of nomads. It remained unknown to the western world until 1812, when Swiss travellerJohann Ludwig Burckhardtrediscovered it.[12]

UNESCO has described Petra as "one of the most precious cultural properties of man's cultural heritage".[13]Petra is a symbol of Jordan, as well as Jordan's most-visited tourist attraction. Tourist numbers peaked at 1.1 million in 2019, marking the first time that the figure rose above the 1 million mark.[14]Tourism in the historical city was hit hard by theCOVID-19 pandemic,but soon after started to pick up again, reaching 905,000 visitors in 2022.[15]

History[edit]

Neolithic[edit]

Cliffs near Petra, View over Wadi Arabah

By 7000 BC, some of the earliest recorded farmers had settled inBeidha,aPre-Pottery Neolithicsettlement just north of Petra.[7]

Bronze Age[edit]

Petra is listed in Egyptian campaign accounts and theAmarna lettersasPel,Sela,orSeir.[16]

Iron Age Edom[edit]

TheIron Agelasted between 1200 and 600 BC; in that time, the Petra area was occupied by theEdomites.The configuration of mountains in Petra allowed for a reservoir of water for the Edomites. This made Petra a stopping ground formerchants,making it an outstanding area for trade. Things that were traded here included wines, olive oil, and wood.

Initially, the Edomites were accompanied byNomadswho eventually left, but the Edomites stayed and made their mark on Petra before the emergence of the Nabataens. It is said that 10,000 men were thrown off of the mountain Umm el-Biyara, but this story has been debated by scholars.[17]

The Edomite site excavated at the top of the Umm el-Biyara mountain at Petra was established no earlier than the seventh century BC (Iron II).[18]

Emergence of Petra[edit]

TheNabataeanswere one among several nomadic Bedouin tribes that roamed theArabian Desertand moved with their herds to wherever they could find pasture and water.[19]Although the Nabataeans were initially embedded in Aramaic culture, theories about them havingArameanroots are rejected by many modern scholars. Instead, archaeological, religious and linguistic evidence confirm that they are a northernArabian tribe.[20]Current evidence suggests that the Nabataean name for Petra was Raqēmō, variously spelled in inscriptions asrqmworrqm.[4]

The Jewish historianJosephus(ca. 37–100 AD) writes that the region was inhabited by theMidianitesduring the time ofMoses,and that they were ruled by five kings, one of whom was Rekem. Josephus mentions that the city, called Petra by the Greeks, "ranks highest in the land of the Arabs" and was still calledRekemeby all the Arabs of his time, after its royal founder (Antiquities iv. 7, 1; 4, 7).[21]TheOnomasticon of Eusebiusalso identified Rekem as Petra.[22]Arabicraqamameans "to mark, to decorate", soRekemecould be a Nabataean word referring to the famous carved rock façades. In 1964, workmen clearing rubble away from the cliff at the entrance to the gorge found severalfunerary inscriptionsin Nabatean script. One of them was to a certain Petraios who was born in Raqmu (Rekem) and buried in Garshu (Jerash).[23][24]

See also:Sela (Edom) § Confusion with Petra

An old theory held that Petra might be identified with a place calledselain theHebrew Bible.Encyclopædia Britannica(1911) states that theSemiticname of the city, if not Sela, would remain unknown. It nevertheless cautioned thatselasimply means "rock" in Hebrew, and thence might not be identified with a city where it occurs in the biblical text in the book of Obadiah. It is possible that the city was part of the nation of Edom.[25]

The passage inDiodorus Siculus(xix. 94–97) which describes the expeditions whichAntigonussent against the Nabataeans in 312 BC, was understood by some researchers to throw some light upon the history of Petra, but the "petra" (Greek for rock) referred to as a natural fortress and place of refuge cannot be a proper name, and the description implies that there was no town in existence there at the time.[25][26]

Roman period[edit]

General view
Roman bronze coin of Geta showing the Petra temple with statue of Tyche
Further information:History of the Romans in Arabia

In AD 106, whenCornelius Palmawas governor ofSyria,the part ofArabiaunder the rule of Petra was absorbed into theRoman Empireas part ofArabia Petraea,and Petra became its capital.[27]The native dynasty came to an end but the city continued to flourish under Roman rule. It was around this time that the Petra Roman Road was built. A century later, in the time ofAlexander Severus,when the city was at the height of its splendor, the issue of coinage came to an end. There was no more building of sumptuous tombs, owing apparently to some sudden catastrophe, such as an invasion by the neo-Persianpower under theSassanid Empire.[25]

Meanwhile, asPalmyra(fl.130–270) grew in importance and attracted the Arabian trade away from Petra, the latter declined. It appears, however, to have lingered on as a religious center. Another Roman road was constructed at the site.Epiphanius of Salamis(c.315–403) writes that in his time a feast was held there on December 25 in honor of the virginKhaabou(Chaabou) and her offspringDushara.[25]Dushara and al-Uzza were two of the main deities of the city, which otherwise included many idols from other Nabataean deities such as Allat and Manat.[28]

Between 111 and 114Trajanbuilt theVia Traiana Nova,running from the Syrian border to the Red Sea through Petra. This road followed the old routes of Nabataean caravans. In the shadow of thePax Romana,this route revived trade between Arabia, Syria, and Mediterranean harbors. In 125 AD, one of EmperorHadrian's administrators left marks[dubious–discuss]in Petra, pointed out by documents found at theDead Sea.In 130 AD, Hadrian visited the former Nabataean capital, giving it the name ofHadriānī Petra Metropolis,imprinted on his coins. His visit, however, did not lead to any boom in development and new buildings as it did inJerash.The province's governor, Sextius Florentinus, erected a monumentalmausoleumfor his son near the end of the al-Hubta (King's Wall) tombs, which had been generally reserved during the Nabataean period for the royal family.

The interest that Roman emperors showed in the city in the 3rd century suggests that Petra and its environs remained highly esteemed for a long time. An inscription toLiber Pater,a god revered by EmperorSeptimius Severus,was found in thetemenosof the temple known asQasr al-Bint,and Nabataean tombs contained silver coins with the emperor's portrait, as well as pottery from his reign. EmperorElagabalusdeclared Petra to be aRoman colony,when he reorganized the Roman Empire towards the end of the 3rd century.[29]The area from Petra toWadi Mujib,theNegev,and theSinai Peninsulawere annexed into the province ofPalaestina Salutaris.Petra may be seen on theMadaba mosaic mapfrom the reign of EmperorJustinian.

Byzantine period[edit]

TheByzantine Church

Petra declined rapidly under Roman rule, in large part from the revision of sea-based trade routes. In 363,an earthquakedestroyed many buildings and crippled the vital water management system.[30]The old city of Petra was the capital of the Byzantine province ofPalaestina IIIand many churches from theByzantine periodwere excavated in and around Petra. In one of them, theByzantine Church,140 papyriwere discovered, which contained mainly contracts dated from 530s to 590s, establishing that the city was still flourishing in the 6th century.[31]The Byzantine Church is a prime example of monumental architecture in Byzantine Petra.

The last reference to Byzantine Petra comes from theSpiritual MeadowofJohn Moschus,written in the first decades of the 7th century. He gives an anecdote about its bishop,Athenogenes.It ceased to be ametropolitan bishopricsometime before 687 when that function had been transferred toAreopolis.Petra is not mentioned in the narratives of theMuslim conquest of the Levant,nor does it appear in any early Islamic records.[32]

Crusaders and Mamluks[edit]

Alwaeira Castle

In the 12th century, theCrusadersbuilt fortresses such as theAlwaeira Castle,but were forced to abandon Petra after a while. As a result, the location of Petra was lost until the 19th century.[33][34]

Two further Crusader-period castles are known in and around Petra: the first is al-Wu'ayra, situated just north of Wadi Musa. It can be viewed from the road toLittle Petra.It is the castle that was seized by a band of Turks with the help of local Muslims and only recovered by the Crusaders after they began to destroy the olive trees of Wadi Musa. The potential loss of livelihood led the locals to negotiate a surrender. The second is on the summit of el-Habis, in the heart of Petra, and can be accessed from the West side of the Qasr al-Bint.

The ruins of Petra were an object of curiosity during theMiddle Agesand were visited byBaibars,one of the firstMamluk sultans of Egypt,towards the end of the 13th century.[25]

19th and 20th centuries[edit]

PetraSiqin 1947 (left) compared with the same location in 2013

The first European to describe them was the Swiss travelerJohann Ludwig Burckhardtduring his travels in 1812.[25][35]At that time, theGreek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalemoperated a diocese inal-Karaknamed Battra (Arabic:باطره,Ancient Greek:Πέτρας) and it was the opinion among the clergy of Jerusalem that Kerak was the ancient city of Petra.[35]

Burckhardt already spoke Arabic fluently, and was on his way to explore theNiger Riverwhen he heard stories of a dead city that heldthe tomb of the Prophet Aaron,and became fascinated with finding the city. He then dressed himself up as a local, and only spoke in Arabic, bringing a goat with him with the intent of sacrificing it in honor of Aaron's Tomb. After one day of exploring, he was convinced that he had found the lost city of Petra.[36]

Léon de LabordeandLouis-Maurice-Adolphe Linant de Bellefondsmade the first accurate drawings of Petra in 1828.[37]The Scottish painterDavid Robertsvisited Petra in 1839 and returned to Britain with sketches and stories of the encounter with local tribes, published inThe Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia.Frederic Edwin Church,the leading American landscape painter of the 19th century, visited Petra in 1868, and the resulting paintingEl Khasné, Petrais among his most important and well-documented.[37]Missionary Archibald Forder published photographs of Petra in the December 1909 issue of National Geographic.

the "Street of Facades"

Because the structures weakened with age, many of the tombs became vulnerable to thieves, and many treasures were stolen. In 1929, a four-person team consisting of British archaeologistsAgnes ConwayandGeorge Horsfield,Palestinian physician and folklore expertTawfiq Canaanand Ditlef Nielsen, a Danish scholar, excavated and surveyed Petra.[38]

The archaeologist Philip Hammond from theUniversity of Utahvisited Petra for nearly 40 years. He explained that the local folklore says it was created by the wand ofMoses,when he struck the rock to bring forth water for theIsraelites.Hammond believed the carved channels deep within the walls and ground were made from ceramic pipes that once fed water for the city, from rock-cut systems on the canyon rim.[39]

In the 1980s, theBedul Bedouin,once inhabitants of Petra, were relocated by the Jordanian government to the nearby settlement of Umm Sayhoun, a process spanning two decades. This move was part of broader initiatives aimed at settling Bedouin communities and promoting tourism in Petra.[40][41]With a name meaning "the changing ones" and oral traditions recounting a conversion narrative, the Bedul Bedouins are believed to have adopted Islam later in their history, possibly withJewishor Nabatean origins.[42][43][44]Today, alongside their traditional activities, they engage in local tourism, alongside the more prominentLiyathnahtribe.[40]

Numerous scrolls in Greek and dating to theByzantineperiod were discovered in an excavated church near theTemple of the Winged Lionsin Petra in December 1993.[45]

21st century[edit]

In December 2022,Petra was hit by heavy flooding.[46]

Layout[edit]

The narrow passage (Siq) that leads to Petra

Petra is adjacent to the mountain ofJabal Al-Madbah,in abasinsurrounded by mountains forming the eastern flank of theArabahvalley running from theDead Seato theGulf of Aqaba.[25]

Excavations have demonstrated that it was the ability of the Nabataeans to control the water supply that led to the rise of the desert city, creating an artificialoasis.The area is visited byflash floods,but archaeological evidence shows that the Nabataeans controlled these floods by the use ofdams,cisterns,and water conduits. These innovations stored water for prolonged periods ofdroughtand enabled the city to prosper from its sale.[47][48]

In ancient times, Petra might have been approached from the south on a track leading across the plain of Petra, around Jabal Haroun ( "Aaron's Mountain" ), the location of theTomb of Aaron,said to be the burial place ofAaron,brother ofMoses.Another approach was possibly from the high plateau to the north. Today, most modern visitors approach the site from the east. The impressive eastern entrance leads steeply down through a dark, narrow gorge, in places only 3–4 m (10–13 ft) wide, called theSiq( "shaft" ), a natural geological feature formed from a deep split in thesandstonerocks and serving as a waterway flowing intoWadi Musa.[49]

Hellenistic architecture[edit]

The Hadrian Gate also known as the Temenos Gate

Petra is known primarily for itsHellenistic architecture.The facades of the tombs in Petra are commonly rendered in Hellenistic style, reflecting the number of diverse cultures which theNabataenstraded, all of which were in turn influenced by Greek culture. Most of these tombs contain small burials niches carved into the stone.[50]

Perhaps the best example of the Hellenistic style is seen in theTreasury,which is 24 meters (79 ft) wide and 37 meters (121 ft) tall and references the architecture of Alexandria.[51]The facade of the Treasury features a broken pediment with a centraltholosinside, and twoobelisksappear to form into the rock at the top. Near the bottom of the Treasury are the twin Greek godsCastor and Pollux,who protect travellers on their journeys. Near the top of the Treasury, two victories are seen standing on each side of a female figure on the tholos. This female figure is believed to be the Isis-Tyche,IsisandTychebeing the Egyptian and Greek goddesses, respectively, of good fortune.[50]

Another prime example of Hellenistic architecture featured in Petra is itsMonastery,which stands at 45 meters (148 ft) tall and 50 meters (160 ft) wide; this is Petra's largest monument and is similarly carved into the rock face. The facade of this again features a broken pediment, similar to theTreasury,as well as another central tholos. The Monastery displays more of a Nabataen touch while at the same time incorporating elements from Greek architecture.[50]Its only source of light is its entrance standing at 8 meters (26 ft) high. There is a large space outside of the Monastery, which is purposefully flattened for worship purposes. Formerly, in theByzantine period,this was a place forChristianworship, but is now a holy site forpilgrimsto visit.

City centre[edit]

The Theatre

At the end of the narrow gorge, theSiq,stands Petra's most elaborate ruin, popularly known asAl-Khazneh( "the Treasury" ), hewn into the sandstone cliff. While remaining in remarkably preserved condition, the face of the structure is marked by hundreds of bullet holes made by the local Bedouin tribes that hoped to dislodge riches that were once rumoured to be hidden within it.[49]A little farther from the Treasury, at the foot of the mountain calleden-Nejr,is a massivetheatre,positioned so as to bring the greatest number oftombswithin view. At the point where the valley opens out into the plain, the site of the city is revealed with striking effect. The theatre was cut into the hillside and into several of the tombs during its construction. Rectangular gaps in the seating are still visible. Almost enclosing it on three sides are rose-coloured mountain walls, divided into groups by deep fissures and lined with knobs cut from the rock in the form of towers.[25]The theatre was said to hold around 8,500 people.[52]The performances that audiences were able to attend here were poetry readings and dramas.Gladiatorfights were also said to be held here and attracted the most audience, although no gladiator was able to gain any momentum or fame due to the heavy mortality rate that came with it. The theatre was one of many structures in Petra that took significant damage due to the363 Galilee earthquake.[52]

Petra Pool and Garden Complex

ThePetra Pool and Garden Complexis a series of structures within the city center. Originally said to be a market area,[53]excavations at the site have allowed scholars to identify it as an elaborate Nabataean garden, which included a large swimming pool, an island-pavilion, and an intricate hydraulic system.[54][55][56]

Ahead of the Petra Pool and Garden Complex lies Colonnaded street, which is among few artifacts of Petra that was constructed rather than natural. This street used to hold a semi-circlenymphaeum,which is now in ruins due to flash flooding, and used to hold Petra's only tree. This was intended to be a symbol for the peaceful atmosphere that the Nabataens were able to construct in Petra. Once the Romans took control of the city, Colonnaded street was narrowed to make room for a side walk, and 72 columns were added to each side.[57]

High Place of Sacrifice[edit]

The High Place of Sacrifice is perched atop Jebel Madbah Mountain.[58]The beginning of the hike is near Petra's theatre. From there, the site of The High Place of Sacrifice is around an 800-step hike. One commonly believed sacrifice that took place there waslibation.Another common form of sacrifice that took place there was animal sacrifice; this is due to the belief that the tomb of theProphet Aaronis located in Petra, which is a sacred site for Muslims. In honor of this, a goat was sacrificed annually. Other rituals also took place there, including the burning offrankincense.[59]

Royal Tombs[edit]

The Royal Tombs in the southern part of the city
ThePalace Tomb

The Royal Tombs of Petra are in the Nabatean version ofHellenistic architecture,but their facades have worn due to natural decay. One of these tombs, thePalace Tomb,is speculated to be the tomb for the kings of Petra. The Corinthian Tomb, which is right next to the Palace Tomb, has the same Hellenistic architecture featured on theTreasury.The two other Royal Tombs are the Silk Tomb and the Urn Tomb; the Silk Tomb does not stand out as much as the Urn Tomb. The Urn Tomb features a large yard in its front, and was turned into a church in 446 AD after the expansion of Christianity.[60]

Exterior platform[edit]

In 2016, archaeologists usingsatellite imageryanddronesdiscovered a very large, previously unknown monumental structure whose beginnings were tentatively dated to about 150 BC, the time when the Nabataeans initiated their public building programme. It is located outside the main area of the city, at the foot of Jabal an-Nmayr and about 0.5 mi (0.8 km) south of the city centre, but is facing east, not towards the city, and has no visible relationship to it. The structure consists of a huge, 184 by 161 ft (56 by 49 m) platform, with a monumental staircase along its eastern side. The large platform enclosed a slightly smaller one, topped with a comparatively small building, 28 by 28 ft (8.5 by 8.5 m), which was facing east toward the staircase. The structure, second in size only to theMonastery complex,probably had a ceremonial function of which not even a speculative explanation has yet been offered by the researchers.[61][62][63]

Religious importance[edit]

Map of Petra
Further information:Nabataean religion

Pliny the Elderand other writers identify Petra as the capital of theNabataean Kingdomand the centre of theircaravantrade. Enclosed by towering rocks and watered by aperennial stream,Petra not only possessed the advantages of a fortress, but controlled the main commercial routes which passed through it toGazain the west, toBosraandDamascusin the north, toAqabaand Leuce Come on theRed Sea,and across the desert to thePersian Gulf.[25]

TheGreat Templeof Petra

The Nabataeans worshippedArab godsandgoddessesduring thepre-Islamicera as well as a few of theirdeifiedkings. One,Obodas I,was deified after his death.Dusharawas the primary male god accompanied by his three female deities:Al-‘Uzzā,AllatandManāt.Many statues carved in the rock depict these gods and goddesses. New evidence indicates that broaderEdomite,and Nabataean theology had strong links to Earth-Sun relationships, often manifested in the orientation of prominent Petra structures to equinox and solstice sunrises and sunsets.[64]

Astelededicated to Qos-Allah 'Qos is Allah' or 'Qos the god', by Qosmilk (melech:king) is found at Petra (Glueck 516). Qos is identifiable with Kaush (Qaush) the God of the older Edomites. The stele is horned and the seal from the Edomite Tawilan near Petra identified with Kaush displays astar and crescent(Browning 28), both consistent with a moon deity. It is conceivable that the latter could have resulted from trade withHarran(Bartlett 194). There is continuing debate about the nature of Qos (qaus:bow) who has been identified both with a hunting bow (hunting god) and a rainbow (weather god) although the crescent above the stele is also a bow.[citation needed]

Nabataean inscriptions in Sinai and other places display widespread references to names including Allah, El and Allat (god and goddess), with regional references to al-Uzza,Baaland Manutu (Manat) (Negev 11). Allat is also found in Sinai in South Arabian language. Allah occurs particularly as Garm-'allahi: "god decided" (Greek Garamelos) and Aush-allahi: "gods covenant" (Greek Ausallos). We find both Shalm-lahi "Allah is peace" and Shalm-allat, "the peace of the goddess". We also find Amat-allahi "she-servant of god" and Halaf-llahi "the successor of Allah".[65]

Recently, Petra has been put forward as the original direction of Muslim prayer, theQibla,by some in therevisionist school of Islamic studies,namely that the earliest mosques faced Petra, notJerusalemorMecca.[66]This view is also shared byAbdullah Hashem,the self-proclaimedQa'imof theAhmadi Religion of Peace and Light.[67]However, others have challenged the notion of comparing modern readings of Qiblah directions to early mosques’ Qiblahs as they claim early Muslims could not accurately calculate the direction of the Qiblah to Mecca and so the apparent pinpointing of Petra by some early mosques may well be coincidental.[68]

Ad Deir( "The Monastery" )

The Monastery,Petra's largest monument, dates from the 1st century BC. It was dedicated to Obodas I and is believed to be the symposium of Obodas the god. This information is inscribed on the ruins of the Monastery (the name is the translation of the ArabicAd Deir).[citation needed]

TheTemple of the Winged Lionsis a large temple complex dated to the reign of KingAretas IV(9 BC–40 AD). The temple is located in Petra's so-called Sacred Quarter, an area situated at the end of Petra's main Colonnaded Street consisting of two majestic temples, theQasr al-Bintand, opposite, the Temple of the Winged Lions on the northern bank of Wadi Musa.

Christianityfound its way to Petra in the 4th century AD, nearly 500 years after the establishment of Petra as a trade centre. The start of Christianity in Petra started primarily in 330 AD when the first Christian Emperor of Rome took over,Constantine I,otherwise known as Constantine The Great. He began the initial spread of Christianity throughout theRoman Empire.Athanasiusmentions a bishop of Petra (Anhioch. 10) namedAsterius.At least one of the tombs (the "tomb with the urn"?) was used as a church. An inscription in red paint records its consecration "in the time of the most holy bishop Jason" (447). After theIslamicconquest of 629–632, Christianity in Petra, as of most of Arabia, gave way to Islam. During theFirst CrusadePetra was occupied byBaldwin Iof theKingdom of Jerusalemand formed the secondfiefof thebaronyofAl Karak(in the lordship ofOultrejordain) with the titleChâteau de la Valée de Moyseor Sela. It remained in the hands of theFranksuntil 1189.[25]It is still atitular seeof theCatholic Church.[69]

According to Arab tradition, Petra is the spot whereMusa(Moses) struck a rock with his staff and water came forth, and where Moses' brother,Harun(Aaron), isburied,atMount Hor,known today as Jabal Haroun or Mount Aaron. The Wadi Musa or "Wadi of Moses" is the Arab name for the narrow valley at the head of which Petra is sited. A mountaintop shrine of Moses' sisterMiriamwas still shown to pilgrims at the time ofJeromein the 4th century, but its location has not been identified since.[70]

Climate[edit]

In Petra, there is asemi-arid climate.Most rain falls in the winter. TheKöppen-Geiger climate classificationis BSk. The average annual temperature in Petra is 15.5 °C (59.9 °F). About 193 mm (7.60 in) of precipitation falls annually.

Climate data for Petra
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 11.0
(51.8) 		13.1
(55.6) 		16.6
(61.9) 		20.9
(69.6) 		25.1
(77.2) 		28.6
(83.5) 		29.8
(85.6) 		30.0
(86.0) 		28.1
(82.6) 		24.6
(76.3) 		18.2
(64.8) 		13.4
(56.1) 		21.6
(70.9)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 2.2
(36.0) 		2.8
(37.0) 		5.6
(42.1) 		8.7
(47.7) 		11.7
(53.1) 		14.1
(57.4) 		16.1
(61.0) 		16.5
(61.7) 		14.2
(57.6) 		11.2
(52.2) 		7.1
(44.8) 		3.4
(38.1) 		9.5
(49.1)
Averageprecipitationmm (inches) 45
(1.8) 		38
(1.5) 		36
(1.4) 		12
(0.5) 		4
(0.2) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		2
(0.1) 		15
(0.6) 		41
(1.6) 		193
(7.6)
Source: Climate-Data.org, Climate data

Conservation[edit]

See also:List of World Heritage Sites in Jordan
Night event atAl-Khazneh
Al-Khazneh,the most popular tourist attraction

TheBedul(PetraBedouin) were forcibly resettled from their cave dwellings in Petra to Umm Sayhoun/Um Seihun by the Jordanian government in 1985, prior to the UNESCO designation process.[40][41]They were provided with block-built housing with some infrastructure including in particular a sewage and drainage system. Among the six communities in the Petra Region, Umm Sayhoun is one of the smaller communities. The village of Wadi Musa is the largest in the area, inhabited largely by the Layathnah Bedouin, and is now the closest settlement to the visitor centre, the main entrance via the Siq and the archaeological site generally. Umm Sayhoun gives access to the 'back route' into the site, the Wadi Turkmaniyeh pedestrian route.[71]

On December 6, 1985, Petra was designated aWorld Heritage Site.In a popular poll in 2007, it was also named one of theNew 7 Wonders of the World.The Petra Archaeological Park (PAP) became an autonomous legal entity over the management of this site in August 2007.[72]

The Urn Tomb

The Bedoul belong to one of the Bedouin tribes whose cultural heritage and traditional skills were proclaimed by UNESCO on theIntangible Cultural Heritage Listin 2005 and inscribed[73]in 2008.

In 2011, following an 11-month project planning phase, the Petra Development and Tourism Region Authority in association with DesignWorkshop and JCP s.r.l published a Strategic Master Plan that guides planned development of the Petra Region. This is intended to guide planned development of the Petra Region in an efficient, balanced and sustainable way over the next 20 years for the benefit of the local population and of Jordan in general. As part of this, a Strategic Plan was developed for Umm Sayhoun and surrounding areas.[74]

The process of developing the Strategic Plan considered the area's needs from five points of view:

  • A socio-economic perspective
  • The perspective of Petra Archaeological Park
  • The perspective of Petra's tourism product
  • A land use perspective
  • An environmental perspective

The site suffers from a host of threats, including collapse of ancient structures, erosion due to flooding and improper rainwater drainage, weathering from salt upwelling,[75]improper restoration of ancient structures, and unsustainable tourism.[76]The last has increased substantially, especially since the site received widespread media coverage in 2007 during theNew7Wonders of the WorldInternet and cellphone campaign.[77]Tourism has steadily grown, with Petra receiving 1.2 million total visitors in 2019.[78]

In an attempt to reduce the problems, thePetra National Trust(PNT) was established in 1989. It has worked with numerous local and international organisations on projects that promote the protection, conservation, and preservation of the Petra site.[79]Moreover, UNESCO and ICOMOS recently collaborated to publish their first book on human and natural threats to the sensitive World Heritage sites. They chose Petra as its first and the most important example of threatened landscapes. The presentationTourism and Archaeological Heritage Management at Petra: Driver to Development or Destruction?(2012) was the first in a series to address the very nature of these deteriorating buildings, cities, sites, and regions.[80]

People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals(PETA) released a video in 2018 highlighting the abuse of working animals in Petra. PETA claimed that animals are forced to carry tourists or pull carriages every day. The video showed handlers beating and whipping working animals, with beatings intensifying when animals faltered. PETA also showed some wounded animals, including camels with fly-infested, open wounds.[81]The Jordanian authority running the site responded by proposing a veterinary clinic, and by undertaking to spread awareness among animal handlers.[82]In 2020, more video released by PETA indicated that conditions for the animals had not improved and, in 2021, the organization was running what appeared to be the only veterinary clinic in the area.[83][84]

Tomb of the Roman Soldier

Petra is a site at the intersection ofnaturalandcultural heritageforming a uniquecultural landscape.Ever sinceJohann Ludwig Burckhardt[85]aka Sheikh Ibrahim had re-discovered the ruin city in Petra, Jordan, in 1812, the cultural heritage site has attracted different people who shared an interest in the ancient history and culture of theNabataeanssuch as travellers, pilgrims, painters and savants.[86]However, it was not until the late 19th century that the ruins were systematically approached by archaeological researchers.[87]Since then regular archaeological excavations[88]and ongoing research on the Nabataean culture have been part of today's UNESCO world cultural heritage site Petra.[89]Through the excavations in the Petra Archaeological Park an increasing number of Nabataean cultural heritage is being exposed to environmental impact. A central issue is the management of water impacting the built heritage and the rock hewn facades.[90]The large number of discoveries and the exposure of structures and findings demand conservation measures respecting the interlinkage between the natural landscape and cultural heritage, as especially this connection is a central challenge at the UNECSO World Heritage Site.[91]

In recent years different conservation campaigns and projects were established at the cultural heritage site of Petra.[92]The main works first focussed on the entrance situation of the Siq to protect tourists and to facilitate access. Also, different projects for conservation and conservation research were conducted. Following is a list of projects, to be continued.

  • 1958 Restoration of the third pillar of the Treasury building (Al-Khazneh). This project was funded by theUnited States Agency for International Development(USAID)
  • 1974–1990 Conservation work in the excavated area of theWinged Lions Temple
  • 1981 Different restoration works by theDepartment of Antiquities of Jordan[93]
  • 1985 Restoration works at the Qasr El Bint Temple by the Department of Antiquities of Jordan[94]
  • 1990–1998 Excavation and Conservation of the Byzantine Church by the American Centre of Research (ACOR)
  • 1992–2002 Conservation and Restoration Center in Petra CARCIP, German GTZ Project.[91]
  • 1993–2000 Excavation, conservation and restoration of the Great Temple, funded by the Brown University, USA.[95]
  • 1996 onwards, Restoration of theSiqand rehabilitation of the Siq floor by the Petra National Trust foundet by the Jordanian-Swiss counterpart Fund, theSwiss Agency for Developmentand theWorld Monuments Fund.[96]
  • 2001 Restoration of the altar in front of the Casr Bint Firaun by UNESCO
  • 2003 Development of a conservation and maintenance plan of the ancient drainage systems to protect the rock-cut facades[90]
  • 2003–2017 Evaluation of desalination and restoration at the tomb facades[97]
  • 2006–2010 Preservation and consolidation of the Wall Paintings in Siq al Barid by the Petra National Trust in cooperation with the Department of Antiquities of Jordan and theCourtauld Institute of Art(London).
  • 2009 onwards, renewed effort to preserve and rehabilitate theWinged Lions Templeby The Temple of the Winged Lions Cultural Management (TWLCRM) Initiative, the Petra Archaeological Park (PAP) and the Department of Antiquities of Jordan
  • 2016–2019 Characterisation and Conservation of Paintings on Walls and Sculpture from Nabataean Petra "The Petra Painting Conservation Project (PPCP)",[98]funded by theGerman Research Foundation(Project number 285789434).[99]

Popular culture[edit]

Gallery[edit]

  • Siq, rays of light
    Siq, rays of light
  • The Obelisk Tomb
    The Obelisk Tomb
  • The Garden Temple
    The Garden Temple
  • The Colored Triclinium
    The Colored Triclinium
  • Rock graves
    Rock graves
  • Petra Monastery Trail
    Petra Monastery Trail
  • Temple of Dushares, Petra
    Temple of Dushares, Petra

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

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Bibliography[edit]

External links[edit]

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