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This article is about a figure in Greek mythology. For other uses of "Philomela" or "Philomel", seePhilomela (disambiguation)andPhilomel.

Procneand Philomela carving upItys,Temple of Apollo, Thermos,terracottametope,c. 630-625 BC
"The Rape of Philomela by Tereus", engraved byVirgil Solisfor a 1562 edition of Ovid'sMetamorphoses(Book VI, 519–562)

Philomela(/ˌfɪləˈmiːlə/) orPhilomel(/ˈfɪləˌmɛl/;Greek:Φιλομήλη,Philomēlē;ΦιλομήλαPhilomḗla) is a minor figure inGreek mythologywho is frequently invoked as a direct and figurativesymbolin literary and artistic works in theWestern canon.

Family[edit]

Philomela was the younger of two daughters ofPandion I,King of Athens,and thenaiadZeuxippe.Her sister,Procne,was the wife of KingTereusofThrace.Philomela's other siblings wereErechtheus,Butes[1]and possiblyTeuthras.[2]

Mythology[edit]

While the myth has several variations, the general depiction is that Philomela, after being raped and mutilated by her sister's husband,Tereus,obtains her revenge and is transformed into anightingale(Luscinia megarhynchos), a bird renowned for its song. Because of the violence associated with the myth, the song of the nightingale is often depicted or interpreted as a sorrowfullament.In nature, the female nightingale is mute, and only the male of the species sings.[3][4]

Ovidand other writers have made the association that theetymologyof her name was "lover of song", derived from theGreekφιλο-andμέλος( "song" ) instead ofμῆλον( "fruit" or "sheep" ), which means "lover of fruit", "lover of apples",[5]or "lover of sheep".[6]

The most complete and extant rendering of the story of Philomela, Procne, and Tereus can be found in Book VI of theMetamorphosesof the Roman poetOvid(Publius Ovidius Naso) (43 BC – 17/18 AD), where the story reaches its full development during antiquity.[7]It is likely that Ovid relied upon Greek and Latin sources that were available in his era such as theBibliothecaof Pseudo-Apollodorus(2nd century BC),[8]or sources that are no longer extant or exist today only in fragments—especiallySophocles' tragic dramaTereus(5th century BC).[9][10][11]

According to Ovid, in the fifth year of Procne's marriage toTereus,King ofThraceand son ofAres,she asked her husband to "Let me at Athens my dear sister see / Or let her come to Thrace, and visit me."[7]Tereus agreed to travel toAthensand escort her sister, Philomela, to Thrace.[7]King Pandion of Athens, the father of Philomela and Procne, was apprehensive about letting his one remaining daughter leave his home and protection and asks Tereus to protect her as if he were her father.[7][12]Tereus agrees. However, Tereuslustedfor Philomela when he first saw her, and that lust grew during the course of the return voyage to Thrace.[7]

"The Rape of Philomela by Tereus", book 6, plate 59. Engraved byJohann Wilhelm Baurfor a 1703 edition of Ovid'sMetamorphoses

Arriving in Thrace, he forced her to a cabin or lodge in the woods andrapedher.[7]After the assault, Tereus threatened her and advised her to keep silent.[7]Philomela was defiant and angered Tereus. In his rage, he cut out her tongue and abandoned her in the cabin.[7]InOvid'sMetamorphosesPhilomela's defiant speech is rendered (in an 18th-century English translation) as:

Still my revenge shall take its proper time,
And suit the baseness of your hellish crime.
My self, abandon'd, and devoid of shame,
Thro' the wide world your actions will proclaim;
Or tho' I'm prison'd in this lonely den,
Obscur'd, and bury'd from the sight of men,
My mournful voice the pitying rocks shall move,
And my complainings echo thro' the grove.
Hear me, o Heav'n! and, if a God be there,
Let him regard me, and accept my pray'r.[13]

Philomela was unable to speak because of her injuries, and so shewoveatapestry(or arobe)[14]that told her story and sent it to Procne.[7]Procne was incensed by her husband's actions and killed their son Itys (or "Itylos" ) in revenge. She boiled Itys and served him as a meal for Tereus.[7]After Tereus ate Itys, the sisters presented Tereus with the severed head of his son, revealing the conspiracy.[7]Tereus grabbed an axe and chased the sisters intending to kill them.[7]They fled but were almost overtaken by Tereus at Daulia in Phocis.[14]The sisters desperately prayed to the gods to be turned into birds and escape Tereus' rage and vengeance.[14]The gods transformed Procne into aswallowand Philomela into anightingale.[7][15]Subsequently, the gods transformed Tereus into ahoopoe.[14]

Variations on the myth[edit]

Philomela and Procne showing the severed head of Itys to his father Tereus, engraved by Baur for a 1703 edition of Ovid'sMetamorphoses(Book VI:621–647)

It is typical for myths from antiquity to have been altered over the passage of time or for competing variations of the myth to emerge.[16][17]With the story of Philomela, most of the variations concern which sister became the nightingale or the swallow, and into what type of bird Tereus was transformed. In Greek texts like Achilles Tatius and the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus, Philomela is transformed into a swallow and Procne into a nightingale, but in Latin texts Philomela is the nightingale and Procne is the swallow.[14]The description of Tereus as an "epops" has generally been translated as a hoopoe (scientific name:Upupa epops).[18][19]Since many of the earlier sources are no longer extant, or remain only in fragments, Ovid's version of the myth has been the most lasting and influential upon later works.

Early Greek sources have it that Philomela was turned into a swallow, which has no song; Procne was turned into a nightingale, singing a beautiful but sad song in remorse.[14]Later sources, among themHyginusand in modern literature the English romantic poets likeKeatswrite that although she was tongueless, Philomela was turned into a nightingale, and Procne into a swallow.[14][20]Eustathius' version of the story has the sisters reversed, so that Philomela married Tereus and that Tereus lusted after Procne.[21]

It is salient to note that intaxonomyandbinomial nomenclature,thegenusname of the martins (the larger-bodied among swallow genera) isProgne,a Latinized form of Procne. Other related genera named after the myth include the Crag MartinsPtyonoprogne,and Saw-wingsPsalidoprocne.Coincidentally, although most of the depictions of the nightingale and its song in art and literature are of female nightingales, the female of the species does not sing—it is the male of the species who sings its characteristic song.[3][4]

In an early account,Sophocleswrote that Tereus was turned into a large-beaked bird whom some scholars translate as ahawk[10][22][23]while a number of retellings and other works (includingAristophanes' ancient comedyThe Birds) hold that Tereus was instead changed into a hoopoe.[18][19]Various later translations of Ovid state that Tereus was transformed into other birds than the hawk and hoopoe, including references by Dryden and Gower to thelapwing.[13][24]

Several writers omit key details of the story. According toPausanias,Tereus was so remorseful for his actions against Philomela and Itys (the nature of the actions is not described) that he kills himself. Then two birds appear as the women lament his death.[25]Many later sources omit Tereus' tongue-cutting mutilation of Philomela altogether.[26]

According toThucydides,Tereus was not King of Thrace, but rather fromDauliainPhocis,a city inhabited by Thracians. Thucydides cites as proof of this that poets who mention the nightingale refer to it as a "Daulian bird".[27]It is thought that Thucydides commented on the myth in his famous work on thePeloponnesian Warbecause Sophocles' play confused the mythical Tereus with contemporary rulerTeres Iof Thrace.[28]

In a variation of the myth set inAsia Minor,Philomela is calledChelidon( "swallow" ) and her sisterAëdon( "nightingale" ).[29]

Elements borrowed from other myths and stories[edit]

The story of Philomela, Procne, and Tereus is largely influenced by Sophocles' lost tragedyTereus.Scholar Jenny Marsh claims Sophocles borrowed certain plot elements fromEuripides' dramaMedea—notably a wife killing her child in an act of revenge against her husband—and incorporated them in his tragedyTereus.She implies that the infanticide of Itys did not appear in the Tereus myth until Sophocles' play and that it was introduced because of what was borrowed from Euripides.[30]

It is possible that social and political themes have woven their way into the story as a contrast between Athenians who believed themselves to be the hegemonic power in Greece and the more civilized of the Greek peoples, and the Thracians who were considered to be a "barbaric race".[9][11][31]It is possible that these elements were woven into Sophocles' playTereusand other works of the period.

Appearances in the Western canon[edit]

The material of the Philomela myth has been used in various creative works—artistic and literary—for the past 2,500 years.[32][33]Over the centuries, the myth has been associated with the image of the nightingale and its song described as both exceedingly beautiful and sorrowful. The continued use of the image in artistic, literary, and musical works has reinforced this association.

From antiquity and the influence of Ovid[edit]

Attic wine cup, circa 490 BC, depicting Philomela and Procne preparing to kill Itys. (Louvre, Paris)

Beginning withHomer'sOdyssey,[34]ancient dramatists and poets evoked the story of Philomela and the nightingale in their works.[33]Most notably, it was the core of the tragedyTereusbySophocles(lost, extant only in fragments) and later in a set of plays byPhilocles,the nephew of the great playwrightAeschylus.In Aeschylus'sAgamemnon,the prophetessCassandrahas a visionary premonition of her own death in which she mentioned the nightingale and Itys, lamenting:

Ah for thy fate, O shrill-voiced nightingale!
Some solace for thy woes did Heaven afford,
Clothed thee with soft brown plumes, and life apart from wail(ing)—[35]

In hisPoetics,Aristotlepoints to the "voice of the shuttle" inSophocles′ tragedyTereusas an example of a poetic device that aids in the "recognition" —the change from ignorance to knowledge—of what has happened earlier in the plot. Such a device, according to Aristotle, is ″contrived″ by the poet, and thus is "inartistic".[36]The connection between the nightingale's song and poetry is evoked byAristophanesin his comedyThe Birdsand in the poetry ofCallimachus.Roman poetVirgilcompares the mourning ofOrpheusforEurydiceto the "lament of the nightingale".[37]

While Ovid's retelling of the myth is the more famous version of the story, he had several ancient sources on which to rely before he finished theMetamorphosesin A.D. 8.[8]Many of these sources were doubtless available to Ovid during his lifetime but have been lost or come to us at present only in fragments. In his version, Ovid recast and combined many elements from these ancient sources. Because his is the most complete, lasting version of the myth, it is the basis for many later works.

In the 12th century, Frenchtrouvère(troubadour)Chrétien de Troyes,adapted many of the myths recounted in Ovid'sMetamorphosesintoOld French.However, de Troyes was not alone in adapting Ovid's material.Geoffrey Chaucerrecounted the story in his unfinished workThe Legend of Good Women[38]and briefly alluded to the myth in his epic poemTroilus and Criseyde.[39]John Gowerincluded the tale in hisConfessio Amantis.[40]References to Philomela are common in themotetsof thears nova,ars subtilior,and ars mutandi musical eras of the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries.[41]

In Elizabethan and Jacobean England[edit]

Throughout the late Renaissance and Elizabethan eras, the image of Philomela and the nightingale incorporated elements of mourning and beauty after being subjected to an act ofviolence.In his long poem "The Steele Glas" (1576), poetGeorge Gascoigne(1535–1577) depicts "Philomel" as the representative of poetry (Poesys), her sister Progne as satire (Satyra), and Tereus as "vayne Delight".[42]The characterization of Philomela and the nightingale was that of a woman choosing to exercise her will in recovering her voice and resisting those forces which attempts to silence her. Critics have pointed to Gascoigne's use of the Philomela myth as a personal appeal and that he was fighting in verse a battle with his enemies who violently opposed his poems.[43][44]In Gascoigne's poem "The complaynt of Philomene" (1576), the myth is employed to depict punishment and control.[45]

In "The Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd",SirWalter Raleigh(1554–1618) relays consolation regarding thenymph's harsh rejection of the shepherd's romantic advances in the spirit of "time heals all wounds" by citing in the second stanza (among several examples) that eventually, with the passage of time, Philomel would become "dumb" to her own pain and that her attention would be drawn away from the pain by the events of life to come.[46][47]

In SirPhilip Sidney's (1554–1586)courtly lovepoem "The Nightingale", the narrator, who is in love with a woman he cannot have, compares his own romantic situation to that of Philomela's plight and claims that he has more reason to be sad. However, recent literary criticism has labelled this claim assexistand an unfortunate marginalization of the traumatic rape of Philomela. Sidney argues that the rape was an "excess of love" and less severe than being deprived of love as attested by the line, "Since wanting is more woe than too much having."[48]

Playwright and poetWilliam Shakespeare(1564–1616) makes frequent use of the Philomela myth—most notably in his tragedyTitus Andronicus(c. 1588–1593) where characters directly reference Tereus and Philomela in commenting on rape and mutilation of Lavinia by Aaron, Chiron, and Demetrius.[49]Prominent allusions to Philomela also occur in the depiction of Lucrece inThe Rape of Lucrece,[50][51]in the depiction of Imogen inCymbeline,[52][53]and inTitania's lullaby inA Midsummer Night's Dreamwhere she asks Philomel to "sing in our sweet lullaby".[54]InSonnet 102,Shakespeare addresses his lover (the "fair youth" ) and compares his love poetry to the song of the nightingale, noting that "her mournful hymns did hush the night" (line 10), and that as a poet would "hold his tongue" (line 13) in deference to the more beautiful nightingale's song so that he "not dull you with my song" (line 14).[55][56][57]Emilia Lanier(1569–1645), a poet who is considered by some scholars to be the woman referred to in the poetry of William Shakespeare as "Dark Lady",makes several references to Philomela in her patronage poem" The Description of Cookeham "inSalve Deus Rex Judaeorum(1611). Lanier's poem, dedicated toMargaret Clifford, Countess of Cumberlandand her daughterLady Anne Cliffordrefers to Philomela's "sundry layes" (line 31) and later to her "mournful ditty" (line 189).[58]

The image of the nightingale appears frequently in poetry of the period with it and its song described by poets as an example of "joyance" and gaiety or as an example of melancholy, sad, sorrowful, and mourning. However, many use the nightingale as a symbol of sorrow but without a direct reference to the Philomela myth.[59]

In Classical and Romantic works[edit]

Tereus Confronted with the Head of his Son Itylus(oil on canvas, painted 1636–1638), one of the late works of Flemish Baroque painter Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) (Prado, Madrid)

Poets in theRomantic Erarecast the myth and adapted the image of the nightingale with its song to be a poet and "master of a superior art that could inspire the human poet".[60][61]For some romantic poets, the nightingale even began to take on qualities of the muse.John Keats(1795–1821), in "Ode to a Nightingale"(1819) idealizes the nightingale as a poet who has achieved the poetry that Keats himself longs to write. Keats directly employs the Philomel myth in"The Eve of St. Agnes"(1820) where the rape of Madeline by Porphyro mirrors the rape of Philomela by Tereus.[20]Keats' contemporary, poetPercy Bysshe Shelley(1792–1822) invoked a similar image of the nightingale, writing in hisA Defence of Poetrythat "a poet is a nightingale who sits in darkness and sings to cheer its own solitude with sweet sounds; his auditors are as men entranced by the melody of an unseen musician, who feel that they are moved and softened, yet know not whence or why."[62]

In France,Philomèlewas anoperaticstage production of the story, produced byLouis Lacosteduring the reign ofLouis XIV.

First published in the collectionLyrical Ballads,"The Nightingale" (1798) is an effort bySamuel Taylor Coleridge(1772–1834) to move away from associations that the nightingale's song was one of melancholy and identified it with the joyous experience of nature. He remarked that "in nature there is nothing melancholy", (line 15) expressing hope "we may not thus profane / Nature's sweet voices, always full of love / And joyance!" (lines 40–42).[63]

At the poem's conclusion, Coleridge writes of a father taking his crying son outside in the night:

And he beheld the moon, and, hushed at once,
Suspends his sobs, and laughs most silently,
While his fair eyes, that swam with undropped tears,'
Did glitter in the yellow moon-beam! Well!—
It is a father's tale: But if that Heaven
Should give me life, his childhood shall grow up
Familiar with these songs, that with the night
He may associate joy.—[64]

Coleridge and his friendWilliam Wordsworth(1770–1850), who called the nightingale a "fiery heart",[65]depicted it "as an instance of natural poetic creation", and the "voice of nature".[66]

Other notable mentions include:

  • InWilliam Makepeace Thackeray's 1847–1848serialVanity Fair,Becky SharpperformscharadesofClytemnestra(kingslayer) and Philomela (the ravished mute of king, who prompted his slaying) before thePrince RegentofEngland.Further, her performance of Philomela is styled afterthe playfrom the era ofLouis XIV,alluding to the possibility of her becoming anotherMarquise de Maintenon.
  • In the poem "Philomela" (1853) by English poetMatthew Arnold(1822–1888), the poet asks upon hearing the crying of a fleeing nightingale if it can find peace and healing in the English countryside far away from Greece, although lamenting its pain and passion "eternal".
  • In his 1881 poem "The Burden of Itys",Oscar Wildedescribes Itys as the symbol of Greek art and pleasure is contrasted with Christ. The landscape of Greece is also compared to the landscape of England, specifically Kent and Oxford.
  • Algernon Charles Swinburne(1837–1909) wrote a poem called "Itylus" based on the story in which Philomela and Procne, after being transformed into the nightingale and swallow, ask when they will be able to forget the grief of having slain Itylus—the answer being they will forget when the world ends. He also wrote the lyrical tragedyErechtheus(1876) which concerns Philomela's brother.
  • English poetAnn Yearsley(1753–1806) in lamenting the sufferings of African slaves invokes the myth and challenges that her song "shall teach sad Philomel a louder note,"in her abolitionist poem" A Poem on the Inhumanity of the Slave-Trade "(1788)[67]
  • In "A la Juventud Filipina", Filipino national heroJosé Rizal(1861–1896), used the image of Philomel as inspiration for young Filipinos to use their voices to speak of Spanish injustice and colonial oppression.[68]

In modern works[edit]

The Philomela myth is perpetuated largely through its appearance as a powerful device in poetry. In the 20th century, American-British poetT. S. Eliot(1888–1965) directly referenced the myth in his most famous poem,The Waste Land(1922), where he describes,

The change of Philomel, by the barbarous king
So rudely forced; yet there the nightingale
Filled all the desert with inviolable voice
And still she cried, and still the world pursues,
"Jug Jug" to dirty ears.[69]

Eliot employs the myth to depict themes of sorrow, pain, and that the only recovery or regeneration possible is through revenge.[70]Several of these mentions reference other poets' renderings of the myth, including those of Ovid and Gascoigne. Eliot's references to the nightingales singing by the convent in "Sweeney and the Nightingales" (1919–1920) is a direct reference to the murder ofAgamemnonin the tragedy by Aeschylus—wherein the Greek dramatist directly evoked the Philomela myth. The poem describes Sweeney as a brute and that two women in the poem are conspiring against him for his mistreatment of them. This mirrors not only the elements of Agamemnon's death in Aeschylus' play but the sister's revenge against Tereus in the myth.

In the poem "To the Nightingale", Argentine poet and fabulist,Jorge Luis Borges(1899–1986), compares his efforts as a poet to the bird's lament though never having heard it. He describes its song as "encrusted with mythology" and that the evolution of the myth has distorted it—that the opinions of other poets and writers have kept both poet and reader from actually hearing the original sound and knowing the essence of the song.[citation needed]

Several artists have applied Ovid's account to new translations or reworkings, or adapted the story for the stage. Leonard Quirino notes that the plot ofTennessee Williams's playA Streetcar Named Desire"is modeled on the legend of Tereus".[71]

British poetTed Hughes(1930–1998) used the myth in his 1997 workTales from Ovid(1997) which was a loose translation and retelling of twenty-four tales from Ovid'sMetamorphoses.Both Israeli dramatistHanoch Levin(inThe Great Whore of Babylon) and English playwrightJoanna Laurens(inThe Three Birds) wrote plays based on the story. The story was adapted into an opera by Scottish composerJames Dillonin 2004,[72]and a 1964vocal compositionby American composerMilton Babbitt[73]with text byJohn Hollander.[74]

The reference to Philomela also exists in the name of a Bengali music troupe in Calcutta, India, calledNagar Philomel[75](The city that loves song), formed in 1983.[76]

Several female writers have used the Philomela myth in exploring the subject of rape, women and power (empowerment) andfeministthemes,including novelistMargaret Atwoodin her novella "Nightingale" published inThe Tent(2006),Emma Tennantin her story "Philomela",Jeannine Hall Gaileywho uses the myth in several poems published inBecoming the Villainess(2006)[citation needed],andTimberlake Wertenbakerin her playThe Love of the Nightingale(1989) (later adapted into anopera of the same namecomposed byRichard Mills).Canadian playwrightErin Shieldsadapted the myth in her playIf We Were Birds(2011), which won the2011 Governor General's Award for Drama.[citation needed]More recently, poet and authorMelissa Studdardbrought new life to the myth in her poem "Philomela's tongue says" (2019), published inPoetrymagazine's May 2019 edition.[77]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Apollodorus,3.15.1.
  2. ^Stephanus of Byzantium,Ethnicas.v.Thespeia
  3. ^abKaplan, Matt (4 March 2009)."Male Nightingales Explore by Day, Seduce by Night".National Geographic News.Archived fromthe originalon 30 October 2013.Retrieved23 November2012.
  4. ^ab"And a nightingale sang... experienced males 'show off' to protect their territories".phys.org.9 November 2011.Retrieved23 November2012.
  5. ^Defining φιλόμηλος as "fond of apples or fruit", see Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; and Jones, Henry Stuart.A Greek-English Lexicon(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1st ed. 1843, 9th Ed. 1925, 1996). (LSJ) found onlinehere;citing "Doroth.Hist. ap. Ath. 7.276f". (Retrieved 7 October 2012)
  6. ^White, John T., ed. (1884).The Fourth Book of Virgil's Georgics: With a Vocabulary.Longmans, Green, and Co. p. 78.Retrieved7 October2012.
  7. ^abcdefghijklmOvid.MetamorphosesBook VI, lines 424–674. (Line numbers vary among translations.)
  8. ^abFrazer, Sir James George (translator/editor). Apollodorus,Libraryin 2 volumes (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd., 1921). See note 2 to section 3.14.8, citing Pearson, A. C. (editor)The Fragments of Sophocles,II:221ff. (found onlinehere– retrieved 23 November 2012), where Frazer points to several other ancient source materials regarding the myth.
  9. ^abSophocles.Tereus(translated by Lloyd-Jones, Hugh) inSophocles Fragments(Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard College, 1996), 290–299
  10. ^abFitzpatrick, David (2001)."Sophocles'" Tereus "".The Classical Quarterly.51(1): 90–101.doi:10.1093/cq/51.1.90.JSTOR3556330– via JSTOR.
  11. ^abFitzpatrick, David."Reconstructing a Fragmentary Tragedy 2: Sophocles'Tereus"inPractitioners Voices in Classical Reception Studies1:39–45 (November 2007) – retrieved 23 November 2012).
  12. ^According to theBibliothecaof Pseudo-Apollodorus(Book III, chapter 14, section 8), in the translation by Sir James George Frazer, Pandion fought a war with Labdacus, King of Thebes and married his daughter Procne to Tereus to secure and alliance and obtain his assistance in fighting Thebes.
  13. ^abDryden, John; Addison, Joseph; Eusden, Laurence; Garth, Sir Samuel (translators). Ovid.Ovid's Metamorphoses in Fifteen Books, translated by the most eminent hands(London: Jacob Tonson, 1717) Volume II, p. 201.
  14. ^abcdefgPseudo-Apollodorus,Bibliotheca,3.14.8; in Frazer, Sir James George (translator/editor). Apollodorus,Libraryin 2 volumes (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd., 1921). (foundonline.Retrieved 23 November 2012). Notes on this passage include references several variations on the myth.
  15. ^Note though that earlier Greek accounts say the opposite (Procne as the nightingale, the "tongueless" Philomela as the silent swallow) and are more consistent with the facts of the myth. Frazer in his translation of theBibliotheca[Frazer, Sir James George (translator/editor). Apollodorus,Libraryin 2 volumes (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd., 1921), in note 2 to section 3.14.8] comments that the Roman mythographers "somewhat absurdly inverted the transformation of the two sisters".
  16. ^Magoulick, Mary."What is Myth?".faculty.de.gcsu.edu.Archived fromthe originalon 7 August 2007.Retrieved9 January2013.
  17. ^Honko, Lauri. "The Problem of Defining Myth" in Dundes, Alan (editor)Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 41–52.
  18. ^abArrowsmith, William (editor).Aristophanes: Three Comedies: The Birds, The Clouds, The Wasps.(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1969), 14, 109.
  19. ^abDeLuca, Kenneth (Hampden-Sydney College). "Deconstructing Tereus: An Introduction to Aristophanes' Birds" (paper prepared for the American Political Science Association Convention Chicago 2007). Found onlinehereArchived21 July 2015 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 9 January 2013.
  20. ^abFields, Beverly. "Keats and the Tongueless Nightingale: Some Unheard Melodies in 'The Eve of Saint Agnes'".Wordsworth Circle19 (1983), 246–250.
  21. ^For the comparison between Homer's version and Eusthathius' version of the myth, see:Notes to Book XIX (regarding line 605&c.)in Pope, Alexander.The Odyssey of Homer, translated by A. Pope,Volume V. (London: F. J. DuRoveray, 1806), 139–140.
  22. ^Halmamann, Carolin. "Sophoclean Fragments" in Ormand, Kirk (editor).A Companion to Sophocles.(Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012), 175.
  23. ^compare with the "hawk" in Hyginus (Gaius Julius Hyginus ).Fabulae,45. Hyginus based his interpretation onAesch.Supp.60from Smyth, Herbert Weir (translator); Aeschylus.Aeschylus, with an English translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, PhD in two volumes.inVolume 2. Suppliant Women.(Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. 1926).
  24. ^Gower, John.Confessio AmantisBook V, Lines 6041–6046, refer to a "lappewincke" or "lappewinge"
  25. ^Pausanias,Description of Greece,1:41 section 8 and 9.
  26. ^According to Delany, Chaucer barely mentions it and the Chretien de Troyes omits the "grotesquerie" entirely. Delany, Sheila.The Naked Text: Chaucer's Legend of Good Women.(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 216–217, andpassim.
  27. ^Thucydides.History of the Peloponnesian War.2.29. In the version translated byThomas Hobbes(London: Bohn, 1843). (found onlinehere– retrieved 23 November 2012).
  28. ^Webster, Thomas B. L.An Introduction to Sophocles(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936), 3, 7.
  29. ^Antoninus Liberalis,Metamorphoses11
  30. ^Marsh, Jenny. "Vases and Tragic Drama" in Rutter, N.K. and Sparkes, B.A. (editors)Word and Image in Ancient Greece(Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, 2000) 121–123, 133–134.
  31. ^Burnett, A. P.Revenge in Attic and later tragedy(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998) 180–189.
  32. ^Salisury, Joyce E.Women in the Ancient World(ABC-CLIO, 2001), 276.
  33. ^abChandler, Albert R. (November 1934)."The Nightingale in Greek and Latin Poetry".The Classical Journal.30(2): 78–84.JSTOR3289944– via JSTOR.
  34. ^Homer.The OdysseyBook XIX, lines 518–523.
  35. ^Aeschylus,Agamemnon(found onlinehereArchived22 November 2008 at theWayback Machine). (Retrieved 23 November 2012).
  36. ^Aristotle,Poetics,54b.
  37. ^Doggett, Frank. "Romanticism's Singing Bird" inSEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900XIV:4:568 (Houston, Texas: Rice University, 1974) (found onlinehere
  38. ^Gila Aloni, "Palimpsestic Philomela: Reinscription in Chaucer's 'Legend of Good Women'", inPalimpsests and the Literary Imagination of Medieval England,eds.Leo Carruthers[fr],Raeleen Chai-Elsholz, Tatjana Silec. New York: Palgrave, 2011. 157–73.
  39. ^Chaucer, Geoffrey.Troilus and CriseydeBook II, lines 64–70.
  40. ^Gower, John.Confessio AmantisBook VIII, lines 5545–6075.
  41. ^Elizabeth Eva Leach,Sung Birds: Music, Nature, and Poetry in the Later Middle Ages(Ithaca, New York: Cornell, 2006)
  42. ^Olson, Rebecca.Behind the Arras: Tapestry Ekphrasis in Spenser and Shakespeare(ProQuest, 2008), p. 164.
  43. ^Maslen, R. W., "Myths Exploited: the Metamorphoses of Ovid in Early Elizabethan England" in Taylor, A. B. (ed.),Shakespeare's Ovid: The Metamorphoses in the Plays and Poems(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 25.
  44. ^Henderson, Diana E.Passion Made Public: Elizabethan Lyric, Gender, and Performance.(University of Illinois Press, 1995), pp. 48–49.
  45. ^Hunter, Lynette, and Lichtenfels, Peter.Negotiating Shakespeare's Language in Romeo and Juliet: Reading Strategies from Criticism, Editing and the Theatre.(Farnham, England and Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2009), p. 106.
  46. ^Lourenco, Alexander.Poetry analysis: The Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd, by William Raleigh(sic). Retrieved 9 January 2013.
  47. ^Raleigh, Sir Walter "The Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd" (1600), lines 5–8: "Time drives the flocks from field to fold / When rivers rage and rocks grow cold, / And Philomel becometh dumb; / The rest complains of cares to come."
  48. ^Addison, Catherine (2009)."'Darkling I Listen': The Nightingale's Song In and Out of Poetry "(PDF).Alternation.16(2): 190–220.Retrieved1 December2020.
  49. ^Oakley-Brown, Liz.Ovid And the Cultural Politics of Translation in Early Modern England.(Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2006), 26–32.
  50. ^See Newman, Jane O. "'And Let Mild Women to Him Lose Their Mildness': Philomela, Female Violence, and Shakespeare's The Rape of Lucrece"Shakespeare QuarterlyVol. 45, No. 3 (Autumn, 1994), pp. 304–326.
  51. ^Cheney, Patrick (ed.)The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare's Poetry.(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 94–95, 105 and 191.
  52. ^Shakespeare, William. "Cymbeline", Act II, Scene ii, and Act III, Scene iv.
  53. ^Kemp, Theresa D.Women in the Age of Shakespeare(Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2010), pp. 98–99.
  54. ^Smith, Nicole (4 December 2011)."The Significance of the Reference to Philomel in" A Midsummer Night's Dream "by Shakespeare".Article Myriad.Retrieved9 January2013.
  55. ^Cheney, Patrick.Shakespeare, National Poet-Playwright.(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 235–236.
  56. ^Luckyj, Christina."A Moving Rhetoricke": Gender and Silence in Early Modern England.(New York: Palgrave, 2002), p. 169.
  57. ^Parker, Patricia A.Shakespeare and the Question of Theory(New York: Methuen, 1985), p. 97.
  58. ^Lanyer, Emilia. "The Description of Cookeham" inSalve Deus Rex Judaeorum(1611).
  59. ^Addison 2009cites examples includingWilliam Drummond of Hawthornden,Charlotte SmithandRobert Southey,Mary Robinson.However, he cites later examples likeRobert Bridgeswhere an indirect reference to the myth may be called a "dark nocturnal secret".
  60. ^Shippey, Thomas. "Listening to the Nightingale" inComparative LiteratureXXII:1 (1970), pp. 46–60 (found onlinehere– retrieved 24 November 2012).
  61. ^Doggett, Frank. "Romanticism's Singing Bird" inSEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900XIV:4 (1974), 570 (found onlinehere– retrieved 24 November 2012).
  62. ^Shelley, Percy Bysshe.A Defense of Poetry(Boston: Ginn & Company, 1903), p. 11.
  63. ^Ashton, Rosemary.The Life of Samuel Taylor Coleridge.(Oxford: Blackwell, 1997), pp. 136–139; Mays, J. C. C. (editor).The Collected Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge: Poetical Works I(Volume I, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), p. 518.
  64. ^Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. "Philomela" (1798), lines 102–109 in Volume I ofLyrical Ballads with a few other poems(with William Wordsworth) (London: J. & A. Arch, 1798)
  65. ^Wordsworth, William. "O Nightingale, thou surely art" (1807), line 2.
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  67. ^Yearsley, Ann. "A Poem on the Inhumanity of the Slave-Trade" (1788) lines 45–46.
  68. ^Zaide, Gregorio.Jose Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of a Genius, Writer, Scientist, and National Hero(Manila, Philippines: All Nations Publishing Co., 1994).
  69. ^Eliot, T(homas) S(tearns). "The Waste Land" (New York: Horace Liveright, 1922), lines 98–103. See also lines 203–206, 428.
  70. ^Donnell, Sean M.Notes on T. S. Eliot'sThe Waste Land(retrieved 24 November 2012).
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  72. ^Stating that it was adapted from Sophocles, Thales, Eva Hesse, R. Buckminster Fuller, seeThe Living Composers Project: James Dillon.(Retrieved 22 December 2012).
  73. ^Hair, Graham, and Stephen Arnold. "Some Works of Milton Babbitt, Reviewed",Temponew series, no. 90 (1969): 33–34.
  74. ^Hollander, John. "A Poem for Music: Remarks on the Composition ofPhilomel",pp. 289–306 inVision and Resonance: Two Senses of Poetic Form(New York: Oxford University Press, 1975)
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  77. ^Studdard, Melissa(May 2019)."Philomela's tongue says".Poetry.

References[edit]

External links[edit]

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