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Physical plant

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"Industrial plant" redirects here. Not to be confused withIndustry plant.

Aphysical plant,mechanical plantorindustrial plant(and where context is given, often justplant) refers to the necessaryinfrastructureused in operation and maintenance of a given facility. The operation of these facilities, or thedepartmentof an organization which does so, is called "plant operations" orfacility management.Industrial plant should not be confused with "manufacturing plant" in thesenseof "afactory".This is a holistic look at the architecture, design, equipment, and other peripheral systems linked with a plant required to operate or maintain it.

Power plants

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Nuclear power

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Main article:Nuclear power plant

The design and equipment of anuclear power plant,has for the most part, remained stagnant over the last 30 years.[1]There are three types of reactor cooling mechanisms:light water reactors,liquid metal reactors,andhigh-temperature gas-cooled reactors.[2]While, for the most part, equipment remains the same, there have been some minimal modifications to existing reactors improving safety and efficiency.[3]There have also been significant design changes for all these reactors. However, they remain theoretical and unimplemented.[4]

Nuclear power plant equipment can be separated into two categories: primary systems andbalance-of-plantsystems.[5]Primary systems are equipment involved in the production and safety ofnuclear power.[6]The reactor specifically has equipment such asreactor vesselsusually surrounding the core for protection, and thereactor corewhich holdsfuel rods.It also includes reactor cooling equipment consisting of liquid cooling loops and circulatingcoolant.These loops are usually separate systems each having at least one pump.[7]Other equipment includessteam generatorsandpressurizersthat ensure pressure in the plant is adjusted as needed.[8]Containment equipment encompasses the physical structure built around the reactor to protect the surroundings from reactor failure.[9]Lastly, primary systems also includeemergency core coolingequipment andreactor protectionequipment.[10]

Balance-of-plant systems are equipment used commonly across power plants in the production and distribution of power.[11]They utilizeturbines,generators,condensers,feedwater equipment, auxiliary equipment, fire protection equipment,emergency powersupply equipment and usedfuel storage.[12]

Broadcast engineering

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Inbroadcast engineering,the termtransmitter plantrefers to the part of the physical plant associated with thetransmitterand its controls and inputs, thestudio/transmitter link(if theradio studiois off-site),[13]theradio antennaandradomes,feedlineanddesiccation/nitrogensystem,broadcast towerandbuilding,tower lighting,generator,and air conditioning. These are often monitored by anautomatic transmission system,which reports conditions viatelemetry(transmitter/studio link).[citation needed]

Telecommunication plants

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Fiber optic telecommunications

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Fiber optic splicing in a mobile lab.

Economic constraints such as capital and operating expenditure lead toPassive Optical Networksas the primary fiber optic model used to for connecting users to the fiber optic plant.[14]A central office hub utilities transmission equipment, allowing it to send signals to between one and 32 users per line.[14]The main fiber backbone of a PON network is called anoptical line terminal.[15]The operational requirements, such as maintenance, equipment sharing efficiency, sharing of the actual fiber and potential need for future expansion, all determine which specific variant of PON is used.[14]AFiber Optic Splitteris equipment used when multiple users must be connected to the same backbone of fiber.[14]EPON is a variant of PON, which can hold 704 connections in one line.[15]Fibre networks based on a PON backbone have several options in connecting individuals to their network, such as fibre to the “curb, building, or home”.[16]This equipment utilises different wavelengths to send and receive data simultaneously and without interference[15]

Cellular telecommunications

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Base stationsare a key component of mobile telecommunications infrastructure. They connect the end user to the main network.[17]They have physical barriers protecting transition equipment and are placed on masts or on the roofs/sides of buildings. Where it is located is determined by the local radio frequency coverage that is required.[18]These base stations utilize different kinds of antennas, either on buildings or on landscapes, to transmit signals back and forth[19]Directional antennas are used to direct signals in different direction, whereas line-of-sight radio-communication antennas, allow for communication in-between base stations.[19]

Base stations are of three types: macro-, micro- and pico-cell sub-stations.[18]Macro cellsare the most widely used base station, utilizing omnidirectional or radio-communication dishes. Micro cells are more specialized; these expand and provide additional coverage in areas where macro cells cannot.[20]They are typically placed on streetlights, usually not requiring radio-communication dishes. This is because they are physically interconnected via fiber-optic cables.[17]Pico cell stations are further specific, providing additional coverage only within a building when the coverage is poor. They will usually be placed on a roof or a wall in each building.[17]

Desalination plants

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Port Stanvac Desalination Plant by the water.

Desalination plantsare responsible for removing salt from water sources so that it becomes usable for human consumption.[21]Reverse osmosis,multi-stage flashandmulti-effect distillation,are three main types of equipment and processes used that differentiate desalination plants.[21]Thermal technologies such as MSF and MED are the most used in the Middle East, as they have low access to fresh water supply yet have access to excess energy.[21]

Reverse osmosis

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Reverse osmosis plants use “Semi-Permeable Membrane Polymers”, that allow for water to pass through unabated while blocking molecules not suitable for drinking.[22]Reverse Osmosis plants typically use intake pipes, which allow for water to be abstracted at its source. This water is then taken to pre-treatment centers, where particles in the water are removed with chemicals added to prevent water damage. HR-pumpsand booster pumps are used to provide pressure and pump the water at different heights of the facility, which is then transferred to a reverse osmosis module. This equipment, depending on the specifications, effectively filters out between 98 and 99.5% of salt from the water. Waste that is separated through these pre-treatment and reverse osmosis modules is taken to an energy recovery module, and any further excess is pumped back out through an outfall pipe. Control equipment is used to monitor this process and ensure it continues to run smoothly. When the water is separated, it is then delivered to a household via a distribution network for consumption.[23]Pre-treatment systems have intake screening equipment such asforebaysandscreens.[24]Intake equipment can vary in design; open ocean intakes are either placed onshore or off the shore. Offshore intakes transfer water using concretechannelsinto screening chambers to be transferred directly to pre-treatment centers, using intake pumps where chemicals will be added. It is then dissolved and separated from solids using a flotation device, to be pumped through a semi-permeable membrane.[25]

Electrodialysis

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Electrodialysiscompetes with reverse osmosis systems and has been used industrially since the 1960s.[26]It usescathodesandanodesat multiple stages to filter outionic compoundsinto a concentrated form, leaving more pure and safe drinking water. This technology does have a higher cost of energy so unlike reverse osmosis it is mainly used forbrackish waterwhich has a lower salt content thanseawater.[27]

Multi-stage flash distillation

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Thermal distillation equipment is commonly used in the middle East; similarly to Reverse osmosis, it has a water abstraction and pre-treatment equipment, although in MSF different chemicals such as anti-sealant and anti-corrosives are added. Heating equipment is used at different stages at different pressure levels until it reaches a brine heater. The brine heater is what provides steam at these different stages to change the boiling point of the water.[28]

Traditional water treatment plants

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Main article:Water treatment plant

Conventionalwater treatment plantsare used to extract, purify and then distribute water from already drinkable bodies of water. Water treatment plants require a large network of equipment to retrieve, store and transfer water to a plant for treatment. Water fromunderground water sourcesare typically extracted viawellsto be transported to a plant.[29]Typical well equipment includes pipes, pumps, and shelters.[30]If this underground water source is distant from the treatment plant, thenaqueductsare commonly used to transport it.[31]Many transport equipment, such as aqueducts,pipes,andtunnelsutilizeopen-channel flowto ensure delivery of the water.[32]This utilizes geography and gravity to allow the water to naturally flow from one place to another withoutthe need for additional pumps.Flow measurementequipment is used to monitor the flow, which is consistent with no issues occurring.[33]Watershedsare areas where surface water in each area will naturally flow and where it is usually stored after collection.[34]Forstorm water runoff,natural bodies of water as well as filtration systems are used to store and transfer water.Non-stormwater runoffsuse equipment such asseptic tanksto treat water onsite, orsewer systemswhere the water is collected and transferred to a water treatment plant.[35]

Once water arrives at a plant, it undergoes a pre-treatment process where it is passed through screens, such as passive screens or bar screens, to stop certain kinds ofdebrisfrom entering equipment further down the facility that could damage it.[36]After that, a mix ofchemicalsis added using either a dry chemical feeder or solutionmetering pumps.To prevent the water from being unusable or damaging equipment, these chemicals are measured using anelectromechanicalchemical feed device to ensure the correct levels of chemicals in the water are maintained.[37]Corrosive-resistant pipe materials such asPVC,aluminumandstainless steelare used to transfer water safely due to increases inacidityfrom pre-treatment.[38]Coagulationis usually the next step, in whichsaltssuch asferric sulfateare used todestabilizeorganic matterin a mi xing tank. Variable-speed paddle mixers are used to identify the best mix of salts to use for a specific body of water being treated.[39]Flocculationbasins use temperature tocondenseunsafe particles together.[40]Setting tanks are then used to performsedimentation,which removes certain solids using gravity so that they accumulate at the bottom of the tank. Rectangular and center feed basins are used to remove thesedimentthat is taken tosludgeprocessing centers.Filtrationthen separates the larger materials that remain in the water source using pressure filtration, diatomaceous earth filtration, and direct filtration.[41]Water is thendisinfectedwhere it is then either stored or distributed for use.[42]

Plant responsibility

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Stakeholdershave different responsibilities for the maintenance of equipment in a water treatment plant.[43]In terms of the distribution equipment to the end user, it is mainly the plant owners who are responsible for the maintenance of this equipment. Anengineersrole is more focused on maintaining the equipment used to treat water. Public regulators are responsible for monitoring water supply quality and ensuring it is safe to drink.[44]These stakeholders have active responsibility for these processes and equipment. The manufacturer's primary responsibility is off site, providing quality assurance of equipment function prior to use.[45]

HVAC

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Air conditioning and exhaust plant on a rooftop inAuckland, New Zealand.

AnHVACplant usually includes air conditioning (both heating and cooling systems and ventilation) and other mechanical systems. It often also includes the maintenance of other systems, such as plumbing and lighting. The facility itself may be an office building, a school campus, military base, apartment complex, or the like. HVAC systems can be used to transport heat towards specific areas within a given facility or building.[46]Heat pumpsare used to push heat in a certain direction. Specific heat pumps used vary, potentially including, solar thermal and ground source pumps. Other common components are finned tubeheat exchangerand fans; however, these are limited and can lead to heat loss.[46]HVAC ventilation systems primarily remove air-borne particles through forced circulation.[47]

See also

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Footnotes

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  1. ^Taylor, JJImproved and safer nuclear power.Science, vol. 244, no. 4902, 1989, p. 318.
  2. ^Taylor, JJImproved and safer nuclear power.Science, vol. 244, no. 4902, 1989, p. 319.
  3. ^Taylor, JJImproved and safer nuclear power.Science, vol. 244, no. 4902, 1989, p. 321.
  4. ^Taylor, JJImproved and safer nuclear power.Science, vol. 244, no. 4902, 1989, p. 318-324.
  5. ^"Nuclear Power Plant Design Characteristics"(PDF).International Atomic Energy Agency. pp. 5–7.
  6. ^"Nuclear Power Plant Design Characteristics"(PDF).International atomic energy agency. p. 9.
  7. ^"Nuclear Power Plant Design Characteristics"(PDF).International Atomic Energy Agency. pp. 9–14.
  8. ^"Nuclear Power Plant Design Characteristics"(PDF).International Atomic Energy Association. pp. 15–16.
  9. ^"Nuclear Power Plant Characteristics"(PDF).International Atomic Energy Agency. p. 16.
  10. ^"Nuclear Power Plant Characteristics"(PDF).International Atomic Energy Agency. pp. 5–7, 15–19.
  11. ^"Nuclear Power Plant Characteristics"(PDF).International Atomic Energy Association. p. 19.
  12. ^"Nuclear Power Plant Characteristics"(PDF).International Atomic Energy Agency. pp. 5–8.
  13. ^"WMAQ's Elmhurst Transmitter Plant and Antenna".
  14. ^abcdTanji, H 'Optical fiber cabling technologies for flexible access network.(Report)'. Optical Fiber Technology, vol. 14, no. 3, 2008, p. 178.
  15. ^abcAhmad Anas, S. B.; Hamat, F. H.; Hitam, S.; Sahbudin, R. K. Z. (February 2012)."Hybrid fiber-to-the-x and free space optics for high bandwidth access networks".Photonic Network Communications.23(1): 34.doi:10.1007/s11107-011-0333-z.ISSN1387-974X.S2CID1340034.
  16. ^Ahmad Anas, S. B.; Hamat, F. H.; Hitam, S.; Sahbudin, R. K. Z. (February 2012)."Hybrid fiber-to-the-x and free space optics for high bandwidth access networks".Photonic Network Communications.23(1): 33.doi:10.1007/s11107-011-0333-z.ISSN1387-974X.S2CID1340034.
  17. ^abcNew South Wales. Department of Planning 'NSW Telecommunications facilities guidelines including Broadband.'. 2010, p. 13.
  18. ^abNew South Wales. Department of Planning 'NSW Telecommunications facilities guidelines including Broadband.'. 2010, p. 11-13.
  19. ^abNew South Wales. Department of Planning 'NSW Telecommunications facilities guidelines including Broadband.'. 2010, p. 11.
  20. ^New South Wales. Department of Planning 'NSW Telecommunications facilities guidelines including Broadband.'. 2010, p. 12.
  21. ^abcFritzmann, C., Löwenberg, J., Wintgens, T. and Melin, T.State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination.Desalination, 216(1-3), 2007, p. 3.
  22. ^Fritzmann, C., Löwenberg, J., Wintgens, T. and Melin, T.State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination.Desalination, 216(1-3), 2007, p. 8.
  23. ^Fritzmann, C., Löwenberg, J., Wintgens, T. and Melin, T.State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination.Desalination, 216(1-3), 2007, p. 9.
  24. ^Henthorne, Lisa; Boysen, Buddy (2015-01-15)."State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination pretreatment".Desalination.State-of-the-Art Reviews in Desalination.356:135.Bibcode:2015Desal.356..129H.doi:10.1016/j.desal.2014.10.039.ISSN0011-9164.
  25. ^Henthorne, Lisa; Boysen, Buddy (2015-01-15)."State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination pretreatment".Desalination.State-of-the-Art Reviews in Desalination.356:130.Bibcode:2015Desal.356..129H.doi:10.1016/j.desal.2014.10.039.ISSN0011-9164.
  26. ^Fritzmann, C.; Löwenberg, J.; Wintgens, T.; Melin, T. (2007-10-05)."State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination".Desalination.216(1): 10.Bibcode:2007Desal.216....1F.doi:10.1016/j.desal.2006.12.009.ISSN0011-9164.
  27. ^Fritzmann, C.; Löwenberg, J.; Wintgens, T.; Melin, T. (2007-10-05)."State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination".Desalination.216(1): 10, 11.Bibcode:2007Desal.216....1F.doi:10.1016/j.desal.2006.12.009.ISSN0011-9164.
  28. ^Fritzmann, C.; Löwenberg, J.; Wintgens, T.; Melin, T. (2007-10-05)."State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination".Desalination.216(1): 11–12.Bibcode:2007Desal.216....1F.doi:10.1016/j.desal.2006.12.009.ISSN0011-9164.
  29. ^Spellman, FRHandbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press, Hoboken. 3rd ed. 2013, p. 607.
  30. ^Spellman, FRHandbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press, Hoboken. 3rd ed. 2013, p. 609.
  31. ^Spellman, FRHandbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press, Hoboken. 3rd ed. 2013, p. 324.
  32. ^Spellman, FRHandbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press, Hoboken. 3rd ed. 2013, p. 325.
  33. ^Spellman, FRHandbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press, Hoboken. 3rd ed. 2013, p. 327.
  34. ^Spellman, Frank R. (2013-10-21).Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press. p. 614.doi:10.1201/b15579.ISBN978-0-429-09731-7.
  35. ^Spellman, Frank R. (2013-10-21).Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press. p. 618.doi:10.1201/b15579.ISBN978-0-429-09731-7.
  36. ^Spellman, Frank R. (2013-10-21).Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press. p. 623.doi:10.1201/b15579.ISBN978-0-429-09731-7.
  37. ^Spellman, Frank R. (2013-10-21).Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press. p. 624.doi:10.1201/b15579.ISBN978-0-429-09731-7.
  38. ^Spellman, Frank R. (2013-10-21).Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press. pp. 627, 631.doi:10.1201/b15579.ISBN978-0-429-09731-7.
  39. ^Spellman, Frank R. (2013-10-21).Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press. pp. 632–634.doi:10.1201/b15579.ISBN978-0-429-09731-7.
  40. ^Spellman, Frank R. (2013-10-21).Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press. p. 633.doi:10.1201/b15579.ISBN978-0-429-09731-7.
  41. ^Spellman, Frank R. (2013-10-21).Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press. pp. 634–635.doi:10.1201/b15579.ISBN978-0-429-09731-7.
  42. ^Spellman, Frank R. (2013-10-21).Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.CRC Press. p. 643.doi:10.1201/b15579.ISBN978-0-429-09731-7.
  43. ^Bingley, WMesponsibility for Plant Operations.American Water Works Association, vol. 64, no. 3, 1972, p. 132.
  44. ^Bingley, WMesponsibility for Plant Operations.American Water Works Association, vol. 64, no. 3, 1972, p. 133.
  45. ^Bingley, WMesponsibility for Plant Operations.American Water Works Association, vol. 64, no. 3, 1972, p. 134.
  46. ^abJouhara, H & Yang, J 'Energy efficient HVAC systems'. Energy and Buildings, vol. 179, 2018, p. 83.
  47. ^Jouhara, H & Yang, J 'Energy efficient HVAC systems'. Energy and Buildings, vol. 179, 2018, p. 84.

References

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  1. Ahmad Anas, S 2012, 'Hybrid fiber-to-the-x and free space optics for high bandwidth access networks' Photonic Network Communications, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 33–39,doi:10.1007/s11107-011-0333-z
  2. Bingley, WM 1972, 'Responsibility for Plant Operations' Journal ‐ American Water Works Association, vol. 64, no. 3, pp. 132–135,doi:10.1002/j.1551-8833.1972.tb02647.x
  3. Fritzmann, C., Löwenberg, J., Wintgens, T. and Melin, T., 2007. State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination. Desalination, 216(1-3), pp. 1–76.[1]
  4. 2010. NSW Telecommunications facilities Guidelines, including Broadband. [ebook] New South Wales. Department of Planning, NSW Telecommunications Facilities Guideline Including Broadband. Available at: <https:// planning.nsw.gov.au/-/media/Files/DPE/Guidelines/nsw-telecommunications-facilities-guideline-including-broadband-2010-07.pdf
  5. www-pub.iaea.org. 2007.Nuclear Power Plant Design Characteristics.[online] Available at: <https://www-pub.iaea.org/mtcd/publications/pdf/te_1544_web.pdf>
  6. Henthorne, L. and Boysen, B., 2015. State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination pretreatment.Desalination,356, pp. 129–139.Taylor, JJ 1989, 'Improved and safer nuclear power' Science, vol. 244, no. 4902, pp. 318–325,doi:10.1126/science.244.4902.318
  7. Jouhara, H., & Yang, J (2018), 'Energy efficient HVAC systems' Energy and Buildings, vol. 179, pp. 83–85,doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.09.001
  8. Spellman, FR 2013, Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations, Third Edition., 3rd ed., CRC Press, Hoboken.
  9. Tanji, H (2008), 'Optical fiber cabling technologies for flexible access network. (Report)' Optical Fiber Technology, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 177–184,doi:10.1016/j.yofte.2007.11.006
  1. ^New South Wales. Department of Planning 'NSW Telecommunications facilities guidelines including Broadband.'. 2010, p. 178.
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