Jump to content

Police brutality

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromPolice violence)
"Excessive force" redirects here. For other uses, seeExcessive force (disambiguation).

Police overuse of force at a Montreal protest
Part of a series on
Police brutality
Police brutality
Country
by country
Concepts
Topics
Activism
Organizations
Other
Lists
Police brutality by country
Police killings by country
Race
by race
Part ofa serieson
Discrimination
Forms
Attributes
Social
Religious
Ethnic/national
Manifestations
Policies
Countermeasures
Related topics

Police brutalityis the excessive and unwarranteduse of forcebylaw enforcementagainst an individual or a group.[1]It is an extreme form ofpolice misconductand is a civil rights violation. Police brutality includes, but is not limited to,asphyxiation,beatings, shootings, improper takedowns, and unwarranted use of tasers.[2][3]

History[edit]

Nine police officers subduing a member of the public in Egypt

The origin of modern policing can be traced back to the 18th century inFrance.By the 19th and early 20th centuries, many nations had establishedmodern police departments.Early records suggest that labor strikes were the first large-scale incidents ofpolice brutality in the United States,including events like theGreat Railroad Strike of 1877,thePullman Strikeof 1894, the1912 Lawrence textile strike,theLudlow massacreof 1914, theGreat Steel Strike of 1919,and theHanapepe massacreof 1924.

The term "police brutality" was first used in Britain in the mid-19th century, byThe Puppet-Showmagazine (a short-lived rival toPunch) in September 1848, when they wrote:

Scarcely a week passes without their committing some offence which disgusts everybody but the magistrates. Boys are bruised by their ferocity, women insulted by their ruffianism; and that which brutality has done, perjury denies, and magisterial stupidity suffers to go unpunished. [...] Andpolice brutalityis becoming one of our most "venerated institutions!"[4]

The first use of the term in the American press was in 1872 when theChicago Tribune[5]reported the beating of a civilian who was under arrest at the Harrison Street Police Station.

In the United States, it is common for marginalized groups to perceive the police asoppressors,rather than protectors or enforcers of the law, due to the statistically disproportionate number of minority incarcerations.[6]

Hubert G. Locke wrote:

When used in print or as the battle cry in ablack powerrally, police brutality can by implication cover several practices, from calling a citizen by his or her first name to death by a policeman's bullet. What the average citizen thinks of when he hears the term, however, is something midway between these two occurrences, something more akin to what the police profession knows as "alley court" —the wanton vicious beating of a person in custody, usually whilehandcuffed,and usually taking place somewhere between the scene of the arrest and thestation house.[7]

— Police Brutality and Civilian Review Boards: A Second Look(1966–1967)

Sometimes riots, e.g. the1992 Los Angeles riots,are a reaction to police brutality.[8][9][10]

Recent cases of police brutality[edit]

Pro-Palestine camps[edit]

Berlin, Germany[edit]

In recent times, as of 2024, there have been more protests and action against the genocide in Palestine. On 8 April 2024, 'Besetzung Gegen Besatzung' - 'Occupy Against Occupation' was set up in front of the Reichstag Building.[11]It is a pro-Palestinian camp by activists, with the demand for the German government to stop exporting arms to Israel, and tostop criminalising solidarity with the Palestinian movement.The camp lasted for two weeks. There were tents, an information booth about the history of the genocide, and field kitchens set up. Protesters were encouraged to sleep over in the camp or return frequently to provide support in numbers. There were community activities and workshops happening frequently to boost the sense of community and morale in the camp.

Police violence and brutality were very prominent at the camp, with the police forcefully evicting the occupants from the Bundestag area for various reasons. The police gave the camp many different restrictions and rules to abide by. The police came up with more new restrictions as the camp went on. This made it confusing for everyone at the camp as the restrictions were ever-changing. The police would not provide sufficient information about the restrictions, making it difficult to determine what is prohibited or not. From banning languages that are not German or English to be used, to criminalizing the songs and materials shared at their workshops.[12]These restrictions can be seen to have extended to the bigger Berlin society previously. Since early October 2023, Palestiniankeffiyehscarves in schools have been banned by the Berlin state authorities. With the reason that it could be a “threat to school peace”.[13]

If one does not abide by the rules set by the police, they could be arrested. These result in instances of the police violence -- arresting, shoving, grabbing, and forcefully holding down people who are resisting arrest. Police violence was most rampant and visible during the camp's eviction. Police were using heavy violence through riot control tactics like kettling the big groups of protesters, eventually arresting a huge number of them. In aYoutube video published by MEMO,'German police violently attack Gaza solidarity camp in Berlin', police were seen grabbing protesters' faces and limbs as they arrest them or attempt to pull them away from where they were standing or sitting. The police can be seen forcibly choking protesters, while also throwing punches, and kicking at them. Affected protesters reported to have suffered injuries -- scratches, bleeding from open wounds, broken bones etc.

USA[edit]

See also:List of pro-Palestinian protests on university campuses in the United States in 2024

The main demands of Pro-Palestinian camps in the USA were for universities todivest from Israeli militarysuch that their universities no longer accept research funding from them. And calling for anacademic boycott-- from ending academic partnerships with Israeli institutions and organizing for an association or union to support the boycott. These are part of theBoycott, Divestment and Sanctions(BDS) movement. The BDS movement has anextensive websiteshowing how one can show their support.

Columbia, USA[edit]

Pro-Palestine encampment was started on April 17 2024, on Columbia University's South Lawn. The encampment demanded that theUniversity divest from companies with ties to Israel,and to be transparent with its direct and indirect investments.[14]There were various tents set up, with many banners and posters stating the encampment's demands. The university quickly called the police in to clear the encampment. The New York Police Department arresting 108 individuals. This was said to be the largest case ofarrests on campus since 1968.

The police were forcibly removing protesters with a lot of force. Officers were seen to becarrying batons and zip tiesfor tying the arrestees' hands together.

California, USA[edit]

Pro-Palestinian encampment was set up at the University of Southern California (USC). The encampment has been in the Alumni Park, on USC's campus for almost 2 weeks. The university call the Los Angeles police to disperse the camp, which ended in 93 people being arrested[1].More people and students returned soon after to resist the police's efforts to clear the encampment. The police reported no arrests while clearing the encampment for the second time.

The encampment at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), was met with more violent police brutality. It was reported thatmore than 200 people were arrested.With many people being heavily injured. A man was struck in the chest with a rubber bullet at one point.



Causes[edit]

Ian Tomlinsonafter being pushed to the ground by police inLondon(2009). He collapsed and died soon after.
Protest against police brutality after the eviction of unemployed demonstrators occupying the Post Office inVancouver,Canada, 1938

Hard on drugs campaigns[edit]

In nations with a reputation for having a high number of drug-related issues, including gang violence, drug trafficking, and overdose deaths, one common solution that government will enact is a collective campaign against drugs that spans the entirety of the state's establishment. Changes to address these issues encompass education, bureaucracy, and, most notably, law enforcement policy and tactics. Law enforcement agencies expand and receive more funding to attack drug problems in communities. Acceptance of harsher policing tactics grows as well, as anany means necessaryphilosophy develops within the law enforcement community and the militarization of local police forces.[15]However, many studies have concluded that these efforts are in vain, as the drug market has grown in such nations despite anti-drug policies. For example, in the United States, critics of the War on Drugs waged by the government have been very vocal about the ineffectiveness of the policy, citing an increase in drug-related crimes and overdoses since President Nixon first introduced this policy.[16]

Legal system[edit]

A type of government failure that can result in the normalization of police brutality is a lack of accountability and repercussions for officers mistreating civilians. While it is currently commonplace for civilians tohold officers accountableby recording them, the actual responsibility of police oversight rests heavily on the criminal justice system of a given nation, as police represent the enforcement of the law. One method of increasing police accountability that has become more common is the employment of body cameras as a part of police uniforms.[17]However, the effectiveness of body cameras has been called into question due to the lack of transparency shown in police brutality cases where the footage is withheld from the public. In many cases of police brutality, the criminal justice system has no policy in place to condemn or prohibit police brutality. Certain nations have laws that permit lawful, violent treatment of civilians, like qualified immunity, which protects officers from being sued for their use of violence if their actions can be justified under the law.[18]

Police officers are legally permitted to use force.Jerome Herbert Skolnickwrites in regards to dealing largely with disorderly elements of the society, "some people working in law enforcement may gradually develop an attitude or sense of authority over society, particularly under traditional reaction-based policing models; in some cases, the police believe that they are above the law."[19]

There are many reasons why police officers can sometimes be excessively aggressive. It is thought that psychopathy makes some officers more inclined to use excessive force than others. In one study, police psychologists surveyed officers who had used excessive force. The information obtained allowed the researchers to develop five unique types of officers, only one of which was similar to thebad applesstereotype. These include personality disorders; previous traumatic job-related experience; young, inexperienced, or authoritarian officers; officers who learn inappropriate patrol styles; and officers with personal problems.[citation needed]Schrivers categorized these groups and separated the group that was the most likely to use excessive force.[20]However, this "bad apple paradigm" is considered by some to be an "easy way out". A broad report commissioned by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) on the causes of misconduct in policing calls it "a simplistic explanation that permits the organization and senior management to blame corruption on individuals and individual faults – behavioural, psychological, background factors, and so on, rather than addressing systemic factors."[21]The report continues to discuss the systemic factors, which include:

  • Pressures to conform to certain aspects of "police culture", such as theBlue Code of Silence,which can "sustain an oppositional criminal subculture protecting the interests of police who violate the law"[22]and a "'we-they' perspective in which outsiders are viewed with suspicion or distrust "[21]
  • Command and control structures with a rigid hierarchical foundation ( "results indicate that the more rigid the authoritarian hierarchy, the lower the scores on a measure of ethical decision-making" concludes one study reviewed in the report);[23]and
  • Deficiencies in internal accountability mechanisms (including internal investigation processes).[21]

The use of force by police officers is not kept in check in many jurisdictions by the issuance of ause of force continuum,[24]which describes levels of force considered appropriate in direct response to a suspect's behavior. This power is granted by the government, with few if any limits set out instatutory lawas well ascommon law.

Violence used by police can be excessive despite being lawful, especially in the context of political repression. Police brutality is often used to refer to violence used by the police to achieve politically desirable ends (terrorism) and, therefore, when none should be used at all according to widely held values and cultural norms in the society (rather than to refer to excessive violence used where at least some may be considered justifiable).

Studies show that there are officers who believe the legal system they serve is failing and that they must pick up the slack. This is known as "vigilantism", where the officer-involved may think the suspect deserves more punishment than what they may have to serve under the court system.[25]

During high-speed pursuits of suspects, officers can become angry and filled with adrenaline, which can affect their judgment when they finally apprehend the suspect. The resulting loss of judgment and heightened emotional state can result in inappropriate use of force. The effect is colloquially known as "high-speed pursuit syndrome".[26]

Global prevalence[edit]

Australianpolice using an illegal pain hold on an activist at theUniversity of Sydney
  • TheAmnesty International2007 report on human rights also documented widespread police misconduct in many other countries, especially countries withauthoritarianregimes[27]
  • In the UK, the reports into the death of New Zealand teacher and anti-racism campaignerBlair Peachin 1979 was published on the Metropolitan Police website on 27 April 2010. They concluded that Peach was killed by a police officer, but that the other police officers in the same unit had refused to cooperate with the inquiry by lying to investigators, making it impossible to identify the actual killer.[citation needed]
  • In the UK,Ian Tomlinsonwas filmed by an American tourist being hit with a baton and pushed to the floor as he was walking home from work during the2009 G-20 London summit protests.Tomlinson then collapsed and died. Although he was arrested on suspicion of manslaughter, the officer who allegedly assaulted Tomlinson was released without charge. He was later dismissed forgross misconduct.[28]
  • In the UK, in 2005, a young Brazilian man was arrested and shot by Metropolitan Police in Central London. The man, Jean Charles Menezes, died later.[29]
  • In Serbia, police brutality occurred in numerous cases during protests againstSlobodan Milošević,and has also been recorded at protests against governments since Milošević lost power.[citation needed]The most recent case was recorded in July 2010, when five people, including two girls, were arrested, handcuffed, beaten with clubs, and mistreated for one hour. Security camera recordings of the beating were obtained by the media and public outrage when released.[30][31]Police officials, includingIvica Dačić,the Serbian minister of internal affairs, denied this sequence of events and accused the victims "to have attacked the police officers first". He also publicly stated that "police [aren't] here to beat up citizens", but that it is known "what one is going to get when attacking the police".[32]
  • Episodes of police brutality in India include theRajan case,the death of Udayakumar,[33]and of Sampath.[34]
  • Police violence episodes against peaceful demonstrators appeared during the2011 Spanish protests[35][36][37]Furthermore, on 4 August 2011, Gorka Ramos, a journalist ofLainformacionwas beaten by police and arrested while covering 15-M protests near the Interior Ministry in Madrid.[38][39][40][41][42]A freelance photographer, Daniel Nuevo, was beaten by police while covering demonstrations against the Pope's visit in August 2011.[43][44]
  • In Brazil, incidents of police violence have been very well-reported and Brazil has one of the highest prevalences of police brutality in the world today
  • South Africa fromapartheidto today has had incidents of police brutality, though police violence is not as prevalent as during the apartheid years
  • There have been several instances of police brutality towards protesters in the2019–20 Hong Kong protests

Investigation[edit]

InEngland and Wales,an independent organization known as theIndependent Police Complaints Commission(IPCC) investigates reports of police misconduct. They automatically investigate any deaths caused by or thought to be caused by, police action.

A similar body known as thePolice Investigations and Review Commissioner(PIRC) operates in Scotland. In Northern Ireland, thePolice Ombudsman for Northern Irelandhas a similar role to that of the IPCC and PIRC.

In Africa, there exist two such bodies: one in South Africa and another one in Kenya known as the Independent Policing Oversight Authority.

In the United States, more police are wearing body cameras after theshooting of Michael Brown.TheUS Department of Justicehas made a call to action for police departments across the nation to implement body cameras in their departments so that further investigation will be possible.[45]

Measurement[edit]

Police brutality is measured based on the accounts ofpeople who have experiencedorseen it,as well as the juries who are present for trials involving police brutality cases, as there is no objective method to quantify the use of excessive force for any particular situation.[citation needed]

In addition to this, police brutality may also be filmed bypolice body cameras,worn by police officers. Whereas body cams could be a tool against police brutality (by prevention, and by increasing accountability). However according to Harlan Yu, executive director from Upturn, for this to occur, it needs to be embedded in a broader change in culture and legal framework. In particular, thepublic's ability to access the body camera footagecan be an issue.[46][47][48]

In 1985, only one out of five people thought that police brutality was a serious problem. Police brutality is relative to a situation: it depends on if the suspect is resisting. Out of the people who were surveyed about their account of police brutality in 2008, only about 12 percent felt as if they had been resisting.[49]Although the police force itself cannot be quantified, the opinion of brutality among various races, genders, and ages can. African Americans, women, and younger people are more likely to have negative opinions about the police than Caucasians, men, and middle-aged to elderly individuals.[50]

Independent oversight[edit]

Various community groups have criticized police brutality. These groups often stress the need for oversight by independentcivilian review boardsand other methods of ensuring accountability for police action.[citation needed]

Umbrella organizations and justice committees usually support those affected.Amnesty Internationalis a non-governmental organization focused on human rights with over threemillion members and supporters around the world. The stated objective of the organization is "to conduct research and generate action to prevent and end grave abuses of human rights, and to demand justice for those whose rights have been violated".[citation needed]

Tools used by these groups include video recordings, which are sometimes broadcast using websites such asYouTube.[51]

Civilians have begun independent projects to monitor police activity to try to reduce violence and misconduct. These are often called"Cop Watch"programs.[52]

See also[edit]

Main listings:List of cases of police brutality by dateandPolice brutality by country

US specific[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Gale (2023)."Police Brutality".
  2. ^"Understanding Five Different Types of Police Brutality - Rhonda Hill Blog - Criminal Law".criminallaw.Archivedfrom the original on 17 November 2022.Retrieved1 May2022.
  3. ^Emesowum, Benedict (5 December 2016). "Identifying Cities or Countries at Risk for Police Violence".Journal of African American Studies.21(2): 269–281.doi:10.1007/s12111-016-9335-3.ISSN1559-1646.S2CID151639366.
  4. ^"More Police Brutality".The Puppet-Show.Vol. 2, no. 27. 9 September 1848. p. 14.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2023.Retrieved29 January2021.
  5. ^"Police Brutality: A Prisoner was shamefully beaten by Officers, he was Kicked and Pounded in a Cell ---Probably Fatally Injured".Chicago Daily Tribune.12 October 1872.
  6. ^Powers, Mary D. (1995). "Civilian Oversight Is Necessary to Prevent Police Brutality". In Winters, Paul A. (ed.).Policing the Police.San Diego: Greenhaven Press. pp. 56–60.ISBN978-1-56510-262-0.
  7. ^Locke, Hubert G. (1966–1967)."Police Brutality and Civilian Review Boards: A Second Look".Hein Journals.44.J. Urb. L.: 625.Archivedfrom the original on 11 July 2011.Retrieved4 May2010.
  8. ^"A History of Protest of U.S. Police Brutality".Bloomberg.9 June 2020.Archivedfrom the original on 11 May 2022.Retrieved10 January2023– via bloomberg.
  9. ^"English riots were 'a sort of revenge' against the police".The Guardian.5 December 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 10 January 2023.Retrieved10 January2023.
  10. ^"Athens protest against police brutality turns violent".9 March 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 10 January 2023.Retrieved10 January2023.
  11. ^Alkousaa, Riham (26 April 2024)."Berlin police clear pro-Palestinian camp from parliament lawn".Reuters.Retrieved8 July2024.
  12. ^Moore, Matthew (26 April 2024)."Germany: Berlin police clear pro-Palestinian protest camp".Deutsche Welle.Retrieved8 July2024.
  13. ^"Berlin bans Palestinian keffiyeh scarves in schools".Middle East Monitor (MEMO).13 October 2023.Retrieved8 July2024.
  14. ^Huddleston, Sarah; Stahl, Maya (1 June 2024)."Pro-Palestinian protesters repitch encampment on South Lawn during annual alumni reunion".Columbia Spectator.Retrieved9 July2024.
  15. ^"Archived copy".cato.org.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2023.Retrieved17 May2022.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  16. ^Cooper, Hannah LF (2015)."War on Drugs Policing and Police Brutality".Substance Use & Misuse.50(8–9): 1188–1194.doi:10.3109/10826084.2015.1007669.ISSN1082-6084.PMC4800748.PMID25775311.
  17. ^Zepcam."Growing Number of European Police Forces use Bodycam"(Press release). PR Newswire.Archivedfrom the original on 19 May 2022.Retrieved19 May2022.
  18. ^"Qualified Immunity".Equal Justice Initiative.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2023.Retrieved19 May2022.
  19. ^Skolnick, Jerome H.; Fyfe, James D. (1995). "Community-Oriented Policing Would Prevent Police Brutality". In Winters, Paul A. (ed.).Policing the Police.San Diego: Greenhaven Press. pp. 45–55.ISBN978-1-56510-262-0.
  20. ^Scrivner, 1994: 3–6
  21. ^abcLoree, Don (2006)."Corruption in Policing: Causes and Consequences; A Review of the Literature"(PDF).Research and Evaluation Community, Contract and Aboriginal Policing Services Directorate.Royal Canadian Mounted Police.Archived(PDF)from the original on 10 September 2011.Retrieved1 September2007.
  22. ^Skolnick, Jerome H. (2002). "Corruption and the Blue Code of Silence".Police Practice and Research.3(1): 7.doi:10.1080/15614260290011309.S2CID144512106.
  23. ^Owens, Katherine M. B.; Pfeifer, Jeffrey (2002). "Police Leadership and Ethics: Training and Police Recommendations".The Canadian Journal of Police and Security Services.1(2): 7.
  24. ^Stetser, Merle (2001).The Use of Force in Police Control of Violence: Incidents Resulting in Assaults on Officers.New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing L.L.C.ISBN978-1-931202-08-4.
  25. ^Chevigny, P. (2008). "Police Brutality", In Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict. Oxford: Elsevier Science and Technology, 2008.
  26. ^Kevin Mullen (5 April 1996)."The high-speed chase syndrome".San Francisco Chronicle.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2023.Retrieved12 November2011.
  27. ^"Amnesty International Report 2007".Amnesty International. 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 7 August 2007.Retrieved8 August2007.
  28. ^Walker, Peter (17 September 2012)."Ian Tomlinson case: PC Simon Harwood sacked for gross misconduct".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 22 December 2019.Retrieved6 August2013.
  29. ^"Dispatch Online - Your premier Eastern Cape news site".Archived fromthe originalon 9 January 2009.Retrieved20 May2022.
  30. ^"Policija brutalno tukla i devojke".B92.net.7 June 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 4 October 2015.Retrieved2 October2015.
  31. ^"Blic Online – Policija nas tukla bez razloga".Blic.7 July 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 3 October 2015.Retrieved2 October2015.
  32. ^"Dačić: Policija nije tu da bije".B92.net.7 July 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 24 September 2015.Retrieved2 October2015.
  33. ^"Police question forensic experts".The Hindu.Chennai, India. 4 October 2005. Archived fromthe originalon 10 November 2012.
  34. ^"Sampath case: 4 police officers to turn approvers".The Hindu.Chennai, India. 17 May 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 21 May 2011.
  35. ^Spanish police clash with protesters over clean-upArchived24 February 2017 at theWayback Machine–The Guardian
  36. ^Los Mossos d'Esquadra desalojan a palos la Plaza de CatalunyaArchived3 December 2011 at theWayback Machine– Público(in Spanish)
  37. ^Indignats – Desallotjament de la Plaça CatalunyaonYouTube
  38. ^Spanish riot police clash in Madrid with anti-austerity protestersArchived19 March 2017 at theWayback Machine–The Guardian
  39. ^Los periodistas, detenidos y golpeados al cubrir las manifestaciones del 15-MArchived4 November 2011 at theWayback Machine– El Mundo(in Spanish)
  40. ^Doce policías para detener a un periodistaArchived7 November 2011 at theWayback Machine– Público(in Spanish)
  41. ^Gorka Ramos: "Me tiraron al suelo, me patearon y luego me detuvieron"Archived12 May 2013 at theWayback Machine– Lainformación(in Spanish)
  42. ^La policía detiene al periodista Gorka RamosArchived5 November 2011 at theWayback Machine– El País(in Spanish)
  43. ^Spanish police officer slaps girl during Pope protests–The Telegraph
  44. ^La policía golpea a un fotógrafo y a una jovenArchived9 December 2011 at theWayback Machine– Público(in Spanish)
  45. ^"Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department". 2015.
  46. ^Matsakis, Louise."Body Cameras Haven't Stopped Police Brutality. Here's Why".Wired.Archivedfrom the original on 24 April 2021.Retrieved19 April2021.
  47. ^Lee, Andrew (13 October 2020)."Why Police Body Cameras Haven't Stopped Police Brutality".Progressive.org.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2023.Retrieved22 April2021.
  48. ^Poor, William (31 August 2020)."Police body cameras don't tell the whole story. This experiment shows it".The Verge.Archivedfrom the original on 19 April 2021.Retrieved19 April2021.
  49. ^Bureau of Justice Statistics."Use of Force".Bureau of Justice Statistics.Office of Justice Programs.Archivedfrom the original on 20 November 2014.Retrieved15 November2014.
  50. ^Jefferis, Eric; Butcher, Fredrick; Hanley, Dena (2012). "Measuring perceptions of police use of force".Police Practice and Research.13(6): 81–96.
  51. ^Veiga, Alex (11 November 2006)."YouTube prompts police beating probe".Associated Press. Archived fromthe originalon 30 November 2006.Retrieved12 November2006.
  52. ^Krupanski, Marc (7 March 2012)."Policing the Police: Civilian Video Monitoring of Police Activity".The Global Journal.Archivedfrom the original on 11 March 2012.Retrieved13 March2012.

Further reading[edit]

  • della Porta, Donatella;Peterson, Abby; Reiter, Herbert, eds. (2006).The policing of transnational protest.Ashgate.
  • della Porta, Donatella (1998).Policing protest: the control of mass demonstrations in Western democracies.Univ. of Minnesota Press.ISBN0-8166-3063-1.
  • Donner, Frank J. (1990).Protectors of privilege: red squads and police repression in urban America.Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN0-520-05951-4.
  • Earl, Jennifer S.; Soule, Sarah A. (2006). "Seeing Blue: A Police-Centered Explanation of Protest Policing".Mobilization.11(2): 145–164.doi:10.17813/maiq.11.2.u1wj8w41n301627u.
  • Oliver, P (2008). "Repression and Crime Control: Why Social Movements Scholars Should Pay Attention to Mass Incarceration Rates as a Form of Repression".Mobilization.13(1): 1–24.doi:10.17813/maiq.13.1.v264hx580h486641.
  • Ross, J.I. (2000).Making news of police violence a comparative study of Toronto and New York City.Praeger.ISBN0-275-96825-1.
  • Zwerman, G.; Steinhoff, P. (2005). "When activists ask for trouble: state-dissident interactions and the new left cycle of resistance in the United States and Japan". In Davenport, C.; Johnston, H.; Mueller, C. (eds.).Repression and mobilization.Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 85–107.
  • Hessbruegge, Jan Arno (2017).Human rights and personal self-defense in international law(First ed.). New York, NY.ISBN978-0-19-065503-7.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related toPolice brutality.
Look uppolice brutalityin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Library resourcesabout
Police brutality
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Police_brutality&oldid=1234439606"