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Polish orthography

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This article containsphonetic transcriptionsin theInternational Phonetic Alphabet(IPA).For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.For the distinction between[ ],/ /and ⟨⟩, seeIPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Polish orthographyis the system of writing thePolish language.The language is written using the Polish Alpha bet, which derives from theLatin Alpha bet,but includes some additional letters withdiacritics.[1]: 6 The orthography is mostly phonetic, or rather phonemic—the written letters (or combinations of them) correspond in a consistent manner to the sounds, or rather thephonemes,of spoken Polish. For detailed information about the system of phonemes, seePolish phonology.

Polish Alpha bet[edit]

Main article:Polish Alpha bet

The diacritics used in the Polish Alpha bet are thekreska(graphically similar to theacute accent) in the lettersć, ń, ó, ś, ź;thekropka(overdot) in the letterż;the stroke in the letterł;and theogonek( "little tail" ) in the lettersą, ę.There are 32 letters[1]: 4 (or 35 letters, if the foreign lettersq, v, xare included)[2]in the Polish Alpha bet: 9vowelsand 23 or 26consonants.

Polish Alpha bet, letters in parentheses are only used for loanwords
Majuscule forms(also calleduppercaseorcapital letters)
A Ą B C Ć D E Ę F G H I J K L Ł M N Ń O Ó P (Q) R S Ś T U (V) W (X) Y Z Ź Ż
Minuscule forms(also calledlowercaseorsmall letters)
a ą b c ć d e ę f g h i j k l ł m n ń o ó p (q) r s ś t u (v) w (x) y z ź ż
Name of Letters
a ą be ce cie de e ę ef gie ha i jot ka el eł em en eń o ó zamknięte pe ku er es eś te u fau wu iks igrek zet ziet żet
The Polish Alpha bet. Grey indicates letters not used in native words.

The lettersq(namedku),v(namedfauor rarelywe[3]), andx(namediks) are used in some foreign words and commercial names. Inloanwordsthey are often replaced bykw,w,and (ksorgz), respectively (as inkwarc"quartz",weranda"veranda",ekstra"extra",egzosfera,"exosphere" ).

When giving the spelling of words, certain letters may be said in more emphatic ways to distinguish them from other identically pronounced characters. For example, H may be referred to assamo h( "h alone" ) to distinguish it from CH(ce ha).The letter Ż may be called "żet(orzet)z kropką"(" Ż with a dot ") to distinguish it from RZ(er zet).The letter U may be calledu otwarte( "open u", a reference to its graphical form) oru zwykłe( "regular u" ), to distinguish it from Ó, which is sometimes calledó zamknięte( "closed ó" ),ó kreskowaneoró z kreską( "ó with a stroke accent" ), alternativelyo kreskowaneoro z kreską( "o with a stroke accent" ). The letteróis a relic from hundreds of years ago when there was a length distinction in Polish similar to that inCzech,witháandéalso being common at the time. Subsequently, the length distinction disappeared andáandéwere abolished, butócame to be pronounced the same asu.

Note that Polish letters withdiacriticsare treated as fully independent letters in Alpha betical ordering (unlike in languages such asFrench,Spanish,andGerman). For example,byćcomes afterbycie.The diacritic letters also have their own sections in dictionaries (words beginning withćare not usually listed underc). However, there are no regular words that begin withąorń.

Digraphs[edit]

Polish additionally uses thedigraphsch,cz,dz,dź,dż,rz,andsz.Combinations of certain consonants with the letteribefore a vowel can be considered digraphs:cias a positional variant ofć,sias a positional variant ofś,zias a positional variant ofź,andnias a positional variant ofń(but see a special remark onnibelow); and there is also onetrigraphdzias a positional variant ofdź.These are not given any special treatment in Alpha betical ordering. For example,chis treated simply ascfollowed byh,and not as a single letter as inCzechorSlovak(e.g.Chojniceonly has its first letter capitalised, and is sorted afterCankiand beforeCieszyn).

Spelling rules[edit]

See also:Polish phonology
Vowels
Grapheme Usual value Other values
a /a/
ą /ɔw̃/ [ɔn],[ɔŋ],[ɔm];becomes/ɔ/before/w/(seebelow)
e /ɛ/
ę /ɛw̃/ [ɛn],[ɛŋ],[ɛm];becomes/ɛ/word-finally and before/l/and/w/(seebelow)
i /i/ [j]before a vowel; marks palatalization of the preceding consonant before a vowel (seebelow)
o /ɔ/
ó /u/
u in certain cases, represents[w]after vowels
y /ɨ/ usually transcribed as/ɨ/butpronouncedcloser to/ɘ/or/ɪ/
Consonants
Grapheme Usual value Voiced or devoiced
b /b/ [p]if devoiced
c1 /t͡s/ [d͡z]if voiced
ć1 /t͡ɕ/ [d͡ʑ]if voiced
cz /t͡ʂ/ [d͡ʐ]if voiced
d /d/ [t]if devoiced
dz1 /d͡z/ [t͡s]if devoiced
dź1 /d͡ʑ/ [t͡ɕ]if devoiced
dż /d͡ʐ/ [t͡ʂ]if devoiced
f /f/ [v]if voiced
g /ɡ/ [k]if devoiced
h /x/ [ɣ]if voiced2
ch
j /j/
k /k/ [ɡ]if voiced
l /l/
ł /w/
m /m/
n1 /n/
ń1 /ɲ/
p /p/ [b]if voiced
r /r/
s1 /s/ [z]if voiced
ś1 /ɕ/ [ʑ]if voiced
sz /ʂ/ [ʐ]if voiced
t /t/ [d]if voiced
w /v/ [f]if devoiced
z1 /z/ [s]if devoiced
ź1 /ʑ/ [ɕ]if devoiced
ż /ʐ/ [ʂ]if devoiced
rz3

^1Seebelowfor rules regarding spelling of alveolo-palatal consonants.

^2H may be glottal[ɦ]in a small number of dialects.

^3Rarely,⟨rz⟩is not a digraph and represents two separate sounds:

  • in various forms of the verbzamarzać– "to freeze"
  • in various forms of the verbmierzić– "to disgust"
  • in the place nameMurzasichle
  • in borrowings, for exampleerzac(from GermanErsatz),Tarzan

Voicing and devoicing[edit]

Voiced consonantletters frequently come to represent voiceless sounds (as shown in the above tables). This is due to theneutralizationthat occurs at the end of words and in certainconsonant clusters;for example, the⟨b⟩inklub( "club" ) is pronounced like a⟨p⟩,and the⟨rz⟩inprze-sounds like⟨sz⟩.Less frequently, voiceless consonant letters can represent voiced sounds; for example, the⟨k⟩intakże( "also" ) is pronounced like a⟨g⟩.The conditions for this neutralization are described underVoicing and devoicingin the article on Polish phonology.

Palatal and palatalized consonants[edit]

The spelling rule for thealveolo-palatalsounds/ɕ/,/ʑ/,/t͡ɕ/,/d͡ʑ/and/ɲ/is as follows: before the vowel⟨i⟩the plain letters⟨s z c dz n⟩are used; before other vowels the combinations⟨si zi ci dzi ni⟩are used; when not followed by a vowel the diacritic forms⟨ś ź ć dź ń⟩are used. For example, the⟨s⟩insiwy( "grey-haired" ), the⟨si⟩insiarka( "sulphur" ) and the⟨ś⟩inświęty( "holy" ) all represent the sound/ɕ/.

Sound Word-finally
or before a consonant 		Before a vowel
other than⟨i⟩ 		Before⟨i⟩
/t͡ɕ/ ć ci c
/d͡ʑ/ dź dzi dz
/ɕ/ ś si s
/ʑ/ ź zi z
/ɲ/ ń ni n

Special attention should be paid to⟨n⟩before⟨i⟩plus a vowel. In words of foreign origin the⟨i⟩causes the palatalization of the preceding consonant⟨n⟩to/ɲ/,and it is pronounced as/j/.This situation occurs when the corresponding genitive form ends in-nii,pronounced as/ɲji/,not with-ni,pronounced as/ɲi/(which is a situation typical to the words of Polish origin). For examples, see the table in the next section.

According to one system, similar principles apply to thepalatalizedconsonants/kʲ/,/ɡʲ/and/xʲ/,except that these can only occur before vowels. The spellings are thus⟨k g (c)h⟩before⟨i⟩,and⟨ki gi (c)hi⟩otherwise. For example, the⟨k⟩inkim( "whom", instr.) and the⟨ki⟩inkiedyboth represent/kʲ/.In the system without the palatalized velars, they are analyzed as /k/, /ɡ/ and /x/ before /i/ and /kj/, /ɡj/ and /xj/ before other vowels.

Other issues withiandj[edit]

Except in the cases mentioned in the previous paragraph, the letter⟨i⟩if followed by another vowel in the same word usually represents/j/,but it also has the palatalizing effect on the previous consonant. For example,pies( "dog" ) is pronounced[pʲjɛs](/pjɛs/). Some words with⟨n⟩before⟨i⟩plus a vowel also follow this pattern (see below). In factiis the usual spelling of/j/between a preceding consonant and a following vowel. The letter⟨j⟩normally appears in this position only after⟨c⟩,⟨s⟩and⟨z⟩if the palatalization effect described above has to be avoided (as inpresja"pressure",Azja"Asia",lekcja"lesson", and the common suffixes-cja"-tion",-zja"-sion":stacja"station",wizja"vision" ). The letter⟨j⟩after consonants is also used in concatenation of two words if the second word in the pair starts with⟨j⟩,e.g.wjazd"entrance" originates fromw+jazd(a).The pronunciation of the sequencewja(inwjazd) is the same as the pronunciation ofwia(inwiadro"bucket" ).

The ending-iiwhich appears in the inflected forms of some nouns of foreign origin, which have-iain the nominative case (always after⟨g⟩,⟨k⟩,⟨l⟩,and⟨r⟩;sometimes after⟨m⟩,⟨n⟩,and other consonants), is pronounced as[ji],with the palatalization of the preceding consonant. For example,dalii(genitive ofdalia"dalia" ),Bułgarii(genitive ofBułgaria"Bulgaria" ),chemii(genitive ofchemia"chemistry" ),religii(genitive ofreligia"religion" ),amfibii(genitive ofamfibia"amphibia" ). The common pronunciation is[i].This is why children commonly misspell and write-iin the inflected forms asarmii,Daniior hypercorrectly writeziemiiinstead ofziemi(words of Polish origin do not have the ending-iibut simple-i,e.g.ziemi,genitive ofziemia).

In some rare cases, however, when the consonant is preceded by another consonant,-iimay be pronounced as[i],but the preceding consonant is still palatalized, for example,Anglii(genitive ofAnglia"England" ) is pronounced[anɡlʲi].(The spellingAngli,very frequently met with on the Internet, is simply an error in orthography, caused by this pronunciation.)

A special situation applies to⟨n⟩:it has the full palatalization to[ɲ]before-iiwhich is pronounced as[ji]– and such a situation occurs only when the corresponding nominative form in-niais pronounced as[ɲja],not as[ɲa].

For example (pay attention to the upper- and lower-case letters):

Case Word Pronunciation Meaning Word Pronunciation Meaning
Nominative dania /daɲa/ dishes (plural) Dania /daɲja/ Denmark
Genitive (dań) (/daɲ/) (of dishes) Danii /daɲji/ of Denmark
Nominative Mania /maɲa/ Mary (diminutiveof "Maria" ) mania /maɲja/ mania
Genitive (Mani) (/maɲi/) (of Mary) manii /maɲji/ of mania

The ending-ji,is always pronounced as/ji/.It appears only afterc,sandz.Pronunciation of it as a simple/i/is considered a pronunciation error. For example,presji(genitive ofpresja"pressure" ) is/prɛsji/;poezji(genitive ofpoezja"poetry" ) is/pɔɛzji/;racji(genitive ofracja"reason" ) is/rat͡sji/.

Nasal vowels[edit]

The letters⟨ą⟩and⟨ę⟩,when followed by plosives and affricates, represent an oral vowel followed by a nasal consonant, rather than a nasal vowel. For example,⟨ą⟩indąb( "oak" ) is pronounced/ɔm/,and⟨ę⟩intęcza( "rainbow" ) is pronounced/ɛn/(the nasalassimilateswith the following consonant). When followed by⟨l⟩or⟨ł⟩,and in the case of⟨ę⟩,also at the end of words by most speakers (in a situation where the speaker pronounces the vowel nasally, it is nasalized only lightly),[4]these letters are pronounced as just/ɔ/or/ɛ/.

Homophonic spellings[edit]

Apart from the cases in the sections above, there are three sounds in Polish that can be spelt in two different ways, depending on the word. Those result from historical sound changes. The correct spelling can often be deduced from the spelling of other morphological forms of the word or cognates in Polish or in other Slavic languages.

  • /x/can be spelt either⟨h⟩or⟨ch⟩.
    • ⟨h⟩only occurs in loanwords; however, many of them have been nativized and are not perceived as loanwords.⟨h⟩is used:
      • when cognate words have the letter⟨g⟩,⟨ż⟩or⟨z⟩,e.g.:
        wahadło – waga
        druh – drużyna
        błahy – błazen
      • when the same letter is used in the language from which the word was borrowed, e.g. Greek prefixeshekto-, hetero-, homo-, hipo-, hiper-, hydro-,alsohonor, historia, herbata,etc.
    • ⟨ch⟩is used:
      • in all native words, e.g.chyba, chrust, chrapać, chować, chcieć
      • when the same digraph is used in the language from which the word was borrowed, e.g.chór, echo, charakter, chronologia,etc.
  • /u/can be spelt⟨u⟩or⟨ó⟩;the spelling⟨ó⟩indicates that the sound developed from thehistorical long /oː/.
    • ⟨u⟩is used:
      • usually at the beginning of a word (except forósemka, ósmy, ów, ówczesny, ówdzie)
      • always at the end of a word
      • in the endings-uch, -ucha, -uchna, -uchny, -uga, -ula, -ulec, -ulek, -uleńka, -ulka, -ulo, -un, -unek, -uni, -unia, -unio, -ur, -us, -usi, -usieńki, -usia, -uszek, -uszka, -uszko, -uś, -utki
    • ⟨ó⟩is used:
      • when cognate words or other morphological forms have the letter⟨o⟩,⟨e⟩or⟨a⟩,e.g.:
        mróz – mrozu
        wiózł – wieźć
        skrócić – skracać
      • in the endings-ów, -ówka, -ówna(except forzasuwka, skuwka, wsuwka)
  • /ʐ/can be spelt either⟨ż⟩or⟨rz⟩;the spelling⟨rz⟩indicates that the sound developed from/r̝/(cf. Czech⟨ř⟩).
    • ⟨ż⟩is used:
      • when cognate words or other morphological forms have the letter/digraph⟨g⟩,⟨dz⟩,⟨h⟩,⟨z⟩,⟨ź⟩,⟨s⟩,e.g.:
        może – mogę
        mosiężny – mosiądz
        drużyna – druh
        każe – kazać
        wożę – woźnica
        bliżej – blisko
      • in the particleże,e.g.skądże, tenże, także
      • after⟨l⟩,⟨ł⟩,⟨r⟩,e.g.:
        lżej
        łże
        rżysko
      • in loanwords, especially from French, e.g.:
        rewanż
        żakiet
        garaż
      • when cognates in other Slavic languages contain the sound/ʐ/or/ʒ/,e.g.żuraw– Russian журавль
    • ⟨rz⟩is used:
      • when cognate words or other morphological forms have the letter⟨r⟩,e.g.morze – morski, karze – kara
      • usually after⟨p⟩,⟨b⟩,⟨t⟩,⟨d⟩,⟨k⟩,⟨g⟩,⟨ch⟩,⟨j⟩,⟨w⟩,e.g.:
        przygoda
        brzeg
        trzy
        drzewo
        krzywy
        grzywa
        chrzest
        ujrzeć
        wrzeć
      • when cognates in other Slavic languages contain the sound/r/or/r̝/,e.g.rzeka– Russian река[5]

Other points[edit]

The letter⟨u⟩represents/w/in the digraphs⟨au⟩and⟨eu⟩in loanwords, for exampleautor, Europa;but not in native words, likenauka,pronounced[naˈu.ka].

There are certain clusters where a written consonant would not normally be pronounced. For example, the⟨ł⟩in the wordsmógł( "could" ) andjabłko( "apple" ) is omitted in ordinary speech.

Capitalization[edit]

Names are generally capitalized in Polish as in English. Polish does not capitalize the months and days of the week, nor adjectives and other forms derived from proper nouns (for example,angielski"English" ).

Titles such aspan( "Mr" ),pani( "Mrs/Ms" ),lekarz( "doctor" ), etc. and their abbreviations are not capitalized, except in written polite address. Second-person pronouns are traditionally capitalized in formal writing (e.g. letters or official emails); so may be other words used to refer to someone directly in a formal setting, likeCzytelnik( "reader", in newspapers or books). Third-person pronouns are capitalized to show reverence, most often in a sacred context.

Punctuation[edit]

Polish punctuation is similar to that of English. However, there are more rigid rules concerning use ofcommas—subordinate clausesare almost always marked off with a comma, while it is normally considered incorrect to use a comma before acoordinating conjunctionwith the meaning "and" (i,aororaz).

Abbreviations (but notacronymsorinitialisms) are followed by a period when they end with a letter other than the one which ends the full word. For example,drhas no period when it stands fordoktor,but takes one when it stands for an inflected form such asdoktoraandprof.has period because it comes fromprofesor(professor).

Apostrophesare used to mark the elision of the final sound of foreign words not pronounced before Polish inflectional endings, as inHarry'ego([xaˈrɛɡɔ],genitive ofHarry[ˈxarɨ]– the final[ɨ]is elided in the genitive). However, it is often erroneously used to separate a loanword stem from any inflectional ending, for example,*John'a,which should beJohna(genitive ofJohn;no sound is elided).

Quotation marksare used in different ways: either „ordinary Polish quotes” or «French quotes» (without space) for first level, and ‚single Polish quotes’ or «French quotes» for second level, which gives three styles of nested quotes:

  1. „Quote ‚inside’ quote”
  2. „Quote «inside» quote”
  3. «Quote ‚inside’ quote»

Some older prints have used „such Polish quotes “.

History[edit]

Main article:History of Polish orthography

Poles adopted theLatin Alpha betin the 12th century. However, that Alpha bet was ill-equipped to represent certain Polish sounds, such as thepalatal consonantsandnasal vowels.Consequently, Polish spelling in theMiddle Ageswas highly inconsistent, as different writers used different systems to represent these sounds, For example, in early documents the letterccould signify the sounds now writtenc, cz, k,while the letterzwas used for the sounds now writtenz, ż, ś, ź.Writers soon began to experiment withdigraphs(combinations of letters), new letters (φ and ſ, no longer used), and eventuallydiacritics.

The Polish Alpha bet was one of two major forms of Latin-based orthography developed forSlavic languages,the other beingCzech orthography,characterized bycarons(hačeks), as in the letterč.The other major Slavic languages which are now written in Latin-based Alpha bets (Slovak,Slovene,andSerbo-Croatian) use systems similar to the Czech.Sorbianspelling is also closer to Czech, though it does include more Polish elements than the aforementioned languages. Polish-based orthographies are used forKashubianand usuallySilesian,both spoken in Poland.

Computer encoding[edit]

There are several different systems forencodingthe Polish Alpha bet for computers. All letters of the Polish Alpha bet are included inUnicode,and thus Unicode-based encodings such asUTF-8andUTF-16can be used. The Polish Alpha bet is completely included in theBasic Multilingual Planeof Unicode.ISO 8859-2(Latin-2),ISO 8859-13(Latin-7),ISO 8859-16(Latin-10) andWindows-1250are popular 8-bit encodings that support the Polish Alpha bet.

The Polish letters which are not present in theEnglish Alpha betuse the followingHTML character entities[6]andUnicodecodepoints:[7][8]

Upper case Ą Ć Ę Ł Ń Ó Ś Ź Ż Ƶ
HTML entity Ą
Ą		 Ć
Ć		 Ę
Ę		 Ł
Ł		 Ń
Ń		 Ó
Ó		 Ś
Ś		 Ź
Ź		 Ż
Ż		 —
Unicode U+0104 U+0106 U+0118 U+0141 U+0143 U+00D3 U+015A U+0179 U+017B U+01B5
Result Ą Ć Ę Ł Ń Ó Ś Ź Ż —
Lower case ą ć ę ł ń ó ś ź ż ƶ
HTML entity ą
ą		 ć
ć		 ę
ę		 ł
ł		 ń
ń		 ó
ó		 ś
ś		 ź
ź		 ż
ż		 —
Unicode U+0105 U+0107 U+0119 U+0142 U+0144 U+00F3 U+015B U+017A U+017C U+01B6
Result ą ć ę ł ń ó ś ź ż —

For other encodings, see the following table. Numbers in the table arehexadecimal.

Other encodings
character
set		 Ą Ć Ę Ł Ń Ó Ś Ź Ż ą ć ę ł ń ó ś ź ż
ISO 8859-2 A1 C6 CA A3 D1 D3 A6 AC AF B1 E6 EA B3 F1 F3 B6 BC BF
Windows-1250 A5 C6 CA A3 D1 D3 8C 8F AF B9 E6 EA B3 F1 F3 9C 9F BF
IBM 852 A4 8F A8 9D E3 E0 97 8D BD A5 86 A9 88 E4 A2 98 AB BE
Mazovia 8F 95 90 9C A5 A3 98 A0 A1 86 8D 91 92 A4 A2 9E A6 A7
Mac 84 8C A2 FC C1 EE E5 8F FB 88 8D AB B8 C4 97 E6 90 FD
ISO 8859-13andWindows-1257 C0 C3 C6 D9 D1 D3 DA CA DD E0 E3 E6 F9 F1 F3 FA EA FD
ISO 8859-16 A1 C5 DD A3 D1 D3 D7 AC AF A2 E5 FD B3 F1 F6 F7 AE BF
IBM 775 B5 80 B7 AD E0 E3 97 8D A3 D0 87 D3 88 E7 A2 98 A5 A4
CSK 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 88 87 A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A8 A7
Cyfromat 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 88 87 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97
DHN 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 88 87 89 8A 8B 8C 8D 8E 8F 91 90
IINTE-ISIS 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
IEA-Swierk 8F 80 90 9C A5 99 EB 9D 92 A0 9B 82 9F A4 A2 87 A8 91
Logic 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 8A 8B 8C 8D 8E 8F 90 91
Microvex 8F 80 90 9C A5 93 98 9D 92 A0 9B 82 9F A4 A2 87 A8 91
Ventura 97 99 A5 A6 92 8F 8E 90 80 96 94 A4 A7 91 A2 84 82 87
ELWRO-Junior C1 C3 C5 CC CE CF D3 DA D9 E1 E3 E5 EC EE EF F3 FA F9
AmigaPL C2 CA CB CE CF D3 D4 DA DB E2 EA EB EE EF F3 F4 FA FB
TeXPL 81 82 86 8A 8B D3 91 99 9B A1 A2 A6 AA AB F3 B1 B9 BB
Atari Club (Atari ST) C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9
CorelDraw! C5 F2 C9 A3 D1 D3 FF E1 ED E5 EC E6 C6 F1 F3 A5 AA BA
ATM C4 C7 CB D0 D1 D3 D6 DA DC E4 E7 EB F0 F1 F3 F6 FA FC

A common test sentence containing all the Polish diacritic letters is the nonsensical "Zażółć gęślą jaźń".

See also[edit]

Further reading[edit]

  • Sadowska, Iwona (2012).Polish: A Comprehensive Grammar.Oxford;New York City:Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-47541-9.

References[edit]

  1. ^abThe Polish Language(PDF).Polish Language Council.ISBN978-83-916268-2-5.Retrieved5 November2018.
  2. ^"Q, V, X – Poradnia językowa PWN".
  3. ^"nazwa litery v".Poradnia Językowa PWN.Retrieved5 September2018.
  4. ^Grzenia, Jan (April 12, 2006)."wymowa ę i ą na końcu wyrazu".Poradnia językowa PWN.RetrievedJune 21,2023.
  5. ^Słownik ortograficzny języka polskiego(XVI ed.). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN. 1993. pp. 17–21, 27–29.
  6. ^"HTML 5.1 2nd Edition: 8. The HTML syntax: §8.5: Named character references".w3.org.Retrieved5 November2018.
  7. ^"Latin Extended-A: Range: 0100–017F"(PDF).Retrieved5 November2018.
  8. ^"C1 Controls and Latin-1 Supplement: Range: 0080–00FF"(PDF).Retrieved5 November2018.

External links[edit]

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