Pompey

For other uses, seePompey (disambiguation)andGnaeus Pompeius (disambiguation).Not to be confused withPompeiiorPompei.

Pompey
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus
Bust of Pompey, copy of an original from 70–60 BC,Venice National Archaeological Museum
Born	29 September 106 BC Picenum,Italy
Died	28 September 48 BC (aged 57) Pelusium,Egypt
Cause of death	Assassination
Resting place	Albanum,Italy
Occupation(s)	Military commander and politician
Office	Consul(70, 55, 52 BC)
Spouses	Antistia(86–82 BC, divorced) Aemilia(82 BC, her death) Mucia Tertia(79–61 BC, divorced) Julia(59–54 BC, her death) Cornelia Metella(52–48 BC, his death)
Children	Gnaeus Pompeia Sextus
Parent	Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo(father)
Relatives	Pompeia gens
Military career
Battles/wars	Social War Sulla's civil war Sertorian War Third Servile War Campaign against the Cilician pirates Third Mithridatic War Caesar's civil war
Awards	3Triumphs

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus(Latin:[ˈŋnae̯ʊspɔmˈpeːi̯ʊsˈmaŋnʊs];29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English asPompey(/ˈpɒmpiː/,POM-pee) orPompey the Great,was a general and statesman of theRoman Republic.He played a significant role in the transformation of Rome from republic toempire.Early in his career, he was a partisan and protégé of the Roman general and dictatorSulla;later, he became the political ally, and finally the enemy, ofJulius Caesar.

A member of the senatorial nobility, Pompey entered into a military career while still young. He rose to prominence serving thedictatorSulla as a commander inthe civil war of 83–81 BC.Pompey's success as a general while young enabled him to advance directly to his firstconsulshipwithout following the traditionalcursus honorum(the required steps to advance in a political career). He was elected as consul on three occasions (70, 55, 52 BC). He celebrated threetriumphs,served as a commander in theSertorian War,theThird Servile War,theThird Mithridatic War,and in various other military campaigns. Pompey's early success earned him thecognomenMagnus– "the Great" – after his boyhood heroAlexander the Great.His adversaries gave him the nicknameadulescentulus carnifex( "teenage butcher" ) for his ruthlessness.

In 60 BC, Pompey joinedCrassusandCaesarin the informal political alliance known as theFirst Triumvirate,cemented by Pompey's marriage with Caesar's daughter,Julia.After the deaths of Julia and Crassus (in 54 and 53 BC), Pompey switched to the political faction known as theoptimates—a conservative faction of theRoman Senate.Pompey and Caesar then began contending for leadership of the Roman state in its entirety, eventually leading toCaesar's Civil War.Pompey was defeated at theBattle of Pharsalusin 48 BC, and he sought refuge inPtolemaic Egypt,where he was assassinated by the courtiers ofPtolemy XIII.

Early life and career

Reputed statue of Pompey, now held at theVilla Arconati, Bollate,brought from Rome in 1627 by Galeazzo Arconati

Pompey was born inPicenumon 29 September 106 BC, eldest son of a provincial noble calledGnaeus Pompeius Strabo.Although the dominantfamilyin Picenum, Strabo was the first of his branch to achieve senatorial status inRome;he completed the traditionalcursus honorum,becomingconsulin 89 BC, and acquired a reputation for greed, political duplicity, and military ruthlessness. Pompey began his career serving with his father in theSocial War (91–87 BC).

Strabo died in 87 BC during the short-lived civil war known as theBellum Octavianum,although sources differ on whether he succumbed to disease, or was murdered by his own soldiers.Prior to his death, Strabo was accused ofembezzlement;as his legal heir, Pompey was held responsible for the alleged crime and put on trial.He was acquitted, supposedly after agreeing to marry thejudge'sdaughter,Antistia.

One of the main issues at stake in 87 BC was the appointment of theconsulLucius Cornelius Sullaas commander of the Roman army in the ongoingFirst Mithridatic War,an opportunity to amass enormous wealth.During his absence in the East, his political rivals led byLucius Cornelius Cinna,Gnaeus Papirius CarboandGaius Marius the Youngerregained control of theRoman Senate.Sulla's return in 83 BC sparkeda civil warwithin the Roman world.

Pompey during Sulla's civil war

Main article:Sulla's civil war

In the year prior to Sulla's return Pompey had raised and equipped a full legion from amongst his father's old clients and veterans inPicenum.In the spring of 83 Sulla landed inBrundusium.As he marched north-west towardsCampania,Pompey led his own legion south to join him. The government in Rome sent out three separate armies in an attempt to prevent the union between Pompey's and Sulla's army. Pompey attacked one of these armies and routed it. The three enemy commanders, unable to agree on a course of action, withdrew. Soon after Pompey arrived at Sulla's camp. He was greeted by Sulla with the official title ofImperator(General).

At some point in 83 BC, it is not clear when but definitely before the onset of winter, Sulla sent Pompey back to Picenum to raise more troops. When fighting broke out once more in 82 Sulla advanced towards Rome, whileMetellus(one of his lieutenants), supported by Pompey, campaigned against the consul Gaius Papirius Carbo inCisalpine Gaul.During this campaign Pompey acted as Metellus's cavalry commander.

Metellus and Pompey defeated Carbo's lieutenant, thepraetorGaius Carrinas,in a six-hour battle at the river Aesis, only to be blockaded by Carbo himself. When word of Sulla's victory at theBattle of Sacriportusreached them, Carbo retreated to his base atAriminium,severely harassed by Pompey's cavalry. Some time later Metellus defeatedGaius Marcius Censorinus,another of Carbo's lieutenants, Pompey's cavalry caught Censorinus's fleeing troops outside their base atSena Gallica,defeating them and plundering the town. While Metellus remained in the north-west, Pompey seems to have transferred to Sulla's command in the south.

Pompey advanced south-west along theVia FlaminiatowardsSpoletium,where he joined Marcus Licinius Crassus, together they defeated Carrinas once again. Pompey laid siege to Carrinas in Spoletium but the latter managed to escape. Pompey resumed his march to join Sulla's command. Not long afterwards Pompey successfully ambushed another large force under Censorinus, which was trying to get through toPraenestewhere Carbo's consular colleague, Marius the Younger (who was the figurehead of the struggle against Sulla), was blockaded. It was the failure of these attempts to get through the Sullan blockade inUmbriaandEtruria,added to Metellus's success in winning control of the north, which broke the back of the government's resistance.

At the end of the campaigning season of 82, the government forces made one final effort to march to the relief of Praeneste. They mustered 10,000 legionaries and marched to join forces with theSamnitesand theLucanians,fierce enemies of Sulla, who had campaigned against them in the Social War.Pursued by Pompey they united their forces and made for Praeneste. Unable to break through Sulla's blockade, they marched for undefended Rome, only to be caught just in time and defeated by Sulla at theBattle of the Colline Gate.Pompey, who was pursuing the government forces, arrived just after the battle.

By the end of 82 BC, Sulla had expelled his opponents from Italy, and engineered his nomination as Dictator by the Senate.Either through admiration of his abilities, or concern at his ambition,Sulla sought to consolidate his alliance with Pompey by persuading him to divorce Antistia, and marry his stepdaughter Aemilia.Plutarchclaims she was already pregnant by her former husband, and died in childbirth soon after.

Sicily, Africa and Lepidus' rebellion

The surviving Marians escaped to Sicily, where their allyMarcus Perpernawaspropraetor.They were supported by a fleet under Carbo, whileGnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbusoccupied theRoman province of Africa.Perperna abandoned Sicily after Pompey landed on the island with a large force,while Carbo was captured and later executed. Pompey claimed this was justified by Carbo's alleged crimes against Roman citizens, but his opponents nicknamed himadulescentulus carnifex,or "young butcher", as a result.

Roman Province of Africa

Pompey now sailed for Africa, leaving Sicily in the hands of his brother-in-law,Gaius Memmius.After defeating and killing Ahenobarbus at theBattle of Utica,Pompey subduedNumidiaand executed its kingHiarbas,a Marian ally.He restored the deposedHiempsalto the Numidian throne.Around this time, his troops began referring to him asMagnus,or "the Great", afterAlexander the Great,a figure much admired by the Romans. Shortly thereafter, Pompey formally made this part of hisname.

On returning to Rome, he asked for a triumph to celebrate his victories, an unprecedented demand for someone so young.Pompey refused to disband his army until Sulla agreed, although the latter tried to offset the impact by awarding simultaneous triumphs toLucius Licinius MurenaandGaius Valerius Flaccus.Sometime during this period, Pompey married Mucia Tertia, a member of the powerfulMetellusfamily. They had three children before their divorce in 61 BC;Pompey the younger,usually known as Gnaeus, a daughter,Pompeia Magna,and a younger son,Sextus.

Cosa

Rome

Mutina

Sardinia

Picenum

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The Lepidan rebellion; key locations

Pompey supportedMarcus Aemilius Lepidusas consul for 78 BC; Plutarch claims he did so against Sulla's advice, but most modern historians refute the idea.When Sulla died in 78 BC, Lepidus sought to block his state funeral and roll back some of Sulla's laws, then becameproconsulof Cisalpine andTransalpine Gaulin January 77 BC.When the Senate ordered him back to Rome, Lepidus refused to comply unless granted another term as consul, a proposal that was rapidly rejected.Assembling an army, he began marching on Rome; the Senate responded with a series of measures, one of which was to appoint Pompey to a military command.

While Lepidus continued south, Pompey raised troops from among his veterans in Picenum, and moved north to besiegeMutina,capital of Cisalpine Gaul. The town was held by Lepidus' allyMarcus Junius Brutus,who surrendered after a lengthy siege, and was assassinated next day, allegedly on Pompey's orders.Catulus then defeated Lepidus outside Rome, while Pompey marched against his rear, catching him near Cosa. Lepidus and the remnants of his army retreated toSardinia,where he died.

Sertorian War

Main article:Sertorian War

The Sertorian War began in 80 BC whenQuintus Sertoriusinitiated a rebellion inHispania,where he was joined by other Marian survivors like Perpenna. Supported by local tribes, he took control ofHispania Citerior,then forced Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius out of neighbouringHispania Ulterior.Backed by his allies in the Senate, Pompey was appointed military commander in Spain with proconsular authority. This act was technically illegal as he had yet to hold public office, illustrating Pompey's preference for military glory, and disregard for traditional political constraints.

Pompey recruited 30,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, evidence of the threat posed by Sertorius.En route to Hispania, he subdued a rebellion inGallia Narbonensis,after which his army entered winter quarters nearNarbo Martius.In early 76 BC, he crossed theCol de Portetand entered the Iberian peninsula,where he would remain for the next five years. His arrival boosted the morale of Metellus' troops, while some rebels changed sides, but soon after he was defeated by Sertorius at theBattle of Lauron.This was a serious blow to Pompey's prestige, who spent the rest of the year re-organising his army.

Col de Portet

Lauron

Valencia

Sucro

Saguntum

Clunia

Italica

Lusitania

Narbo Martius

Vaccaei

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Sertorian War in Spain; key locations mentioned in article

In 75 BC, Sertorius led the campaign against Metellus, while Pompey defeated his subordinates Perpenna and Gaius Herennius outsideValencia.When Sertorius took over operations against Pompey, Metellus defeated his deputyLucius Hirtuleiusat theBattle of Italica.After the indecisiveBattle of Sucro,Sertorius withdrew inland, then turned to fight atSaguntum,where Pompey lost 6,000 killed, including his brother-in-law Memmius, reputedly his most effective subordinate.Sertorius himself suffered 3,000 casualties, one of whom was Hirtuleius.

Although Metellus defeated Perpenna in a separate battle, Sertorius was able to withdraw toClunia,where he repaired the walls to lure his opponents into a siege, while forming garrisons from other towns into a new field army. Once this was ready, he escaped from Clunia and used it to disrupt Roman logistics on land and by sea. Lack of supplies forced Metellus to quarter his troops inGaul,while Pompey wintered among theVaccaei.

Reinforced by two more legions, in 73 BC Metellus joined Pompey and made for theriver Ebro,while Sertorius and Perpenna advanced fromLusitania.By now, Sertorius was being undermined by internal divisions, and neither side made much progress over the next two years.In 71 BC, Perpenna had Sertorius killed, but was subsequently defeated and executed by Pompey. The latter then spent some time restructuring the local Roman administration, showing a lack of animosity towards his former opponents, which extended his patronage throughout Hispania and into southern Gaul.

First Consulship

During Pompey's absence, Marcus Licinius Crassus was charged with suppressing the slave rebellion led bySpartacusknown as theThird Servile War.Pompey returned to Italy just before Crassus defeated the main rebel army in 71 BC, arriving in time to massacre 6,000 fugitives from the battle. His claim to have ended the war by doing so was a long-standing source of resentment for Crassus.

Aureusminted by Pompey for his second triumph in 71 BC, featuring the head of Africa on the obverse (celebrating his victory againstHiarbas). The reverse shows Pompey in his triumphal chariot, with his sonGnaeusseated before andVictoryflying above.

Pompey was granted a second triumph for his victory in Hispania, and nominated for the consulship. Since he was both too young and technically ineligible, this required a special senatorial decree.Plutarchsuggests Pompey supported Crassus as his co-consul in order to put him under an obligation.The two men were elected consuls for 70 BC, but allegedly differed on almost every measure, rendering their term "politically barren and without achievement."

However, their consulship did see theplebeian tribunerecover powers removed by Sulla. One of the most significant was the ability to veto Senatorial bills, an act often seen as a turning point in the politics of the late Republic. Although popular with the people, the measure must have been opposed by theoptimates,and thus passing it required support from both consuls, although most extant sources barely mention Crassus.

Campaign against the pirates

Main article:Pompey's campaign against pirates

Pirates operated throughout the Mediterranean, while their fleets often formed temporary alliances with enemies of Rome, including Sertorius and Mithridates. Their power and range had increased over the past fifty years, partly because of the decline of traditional naval powers likeRhodes,while previous attempts to subdue them had been unsuccessful.However, Romans routinely referred to their opponents as "pirates" or "brigands", and some historians argue it is more accurate to see them as a conventional enemy, rather than disorganised outlaws.

Principally based inCilicia,in 68 BC they raided as far asOstia,Rome's port, and kidnapped two senators, to general outrage.Prompted by Pompey,Aulus Gabinius,tribune of the plebs in 67 BC, proposed theLex Gabinia,giving him a mandate for their suppression. It granted him proconsular authority for three years in any province within 50 miles of the Mediterranean, along with the power to appoint legates and significant financial resources.Concerned by one man holding such wide-ranging powers, the law was opposed by the Senate, but passed by the tribunate.Most of the difficulties Pompey faced came from officials who resented his authority. In Gaul,Pisohampered his recruitment efforts, while inCrete,Quintus Metellusrefused to comply with his instructions.

Pompey spread his forces throughout the Mediterranean to prevent the pirates escaping a Roman fleet by moving elsewhere.Fifteen legates were given specific areas to patrol, while he secured the grain route to Rome. These measures won him control of the western Mediterranean in just 40 days, after which his fleets moved to the east, forcing the pirates back to their bases in Cilicia. Pompey led the decisive assault on their stronghold inCoracaesium,winning theBattle of Korakesionand concluding the war in only three months.

Most of his opponents surrendered without fighting, thanks to Pompey's reputation for clemency.They were granted lands in cities devastated during the Mithridatic War, notablySoli,renamed Pompeiopolis, andDymein Greece, with others sent to towns in Libya andCalabria.These communities retained a strong attachment to both Rome and Pompey.

Third Mithridatic War and re-organisation of the east

Third Mithridatic War

Main article:Third Mithridatic War

Asia Minor and surrounding region, first century BC

In 73 BC,Lucius Licinius Lucullus,formerly one of Sulla's chief lieutenants, was made proconsul ofCilicia,and commander in the Third Mithridatic War. The war began in 74 BC, when the last ruler ofBithyniadied and left his kingdom to Rome, sparking an invasion byMithridates VIofPontus,andTigranes the GreatofArmenia.Lucullus was a skilled general who won numerous victories, but claims he was protracting the war for "power and wealth" led to a Senate investigation, while by 69 BC his troops were weary and mutinous.

In 68 BC,Quintus Marcius Rexreplaced Lucullus in Cicilia, whileManius Acilius Glabrioreceived Bithynia. He also assumed leadership of the war against Mithridates, but failed to respond decisively when the latter re-occupied much of Pontus in 67 BC, then attackedCappadocia,a Roman ally.Seeing an opportunity, in 66 BC Pompey used thetribunateto pass thelex Manilia,giving him extensive powers throughout Asia Minor in order to defeat Mithridates, in addition to those granted by thelex Gabinia.Theoptimateswere privately horrified that one man should hold so much influence, but fearful of his popularity allowed the measure to pass.

Incensed at being replaced, Lucullus called Pompey a "vulture" who profited from the work of others, a reference both to his new command and claim to have finished the war against Spartacus.Pompey agreed an alliance withPhraates III,king ofParthia,whom he persuaded to invade Armenia. When Mithridates offered a truce, Lucullus argued the war was over, but Pompey demanded concessions which could not be accepted.Outnumbered, Mithridates withdrew into Armenia, followed by Pompey, who defeated him atLycusnear the end of 66 BC.

Bust ofMithridatesofPontusin theLouvre,Paris

According to contemporary sources, Mithridates and a small contingent escaped the battle, outstripped their pursuers, and reachedColchison theBlack Sea.While there, he took control of theCimmerian Bosporusfrom its Roman-backed ruler, his sonMachares,who later committed suicide.Meanwhile, Pompey invaded Armenia supported byTigranes the Younger,whose father quickly came to terms; in return for the restoration of Armenian territories taken by Lucullus, he paid a substantial cash indemnityand allowed Roman troops to be based on his territory.

In 65 BC, Pompey set out to take Colchis, but to do so had first tosubduevarious local tribes and allies of Mithridrates. After winning a series of battles, he reachedPhasisand linked up with Servilius, admiral of his Euxine fleet, before a fresh revolt inCaucasian Albaniaforced him to retrace his steps. Victory at theAbasenabled him to impose terms on the Albanians and agree truces with other tribes on the northern side of the Caucasus.Pompey then wintered in Armenia, settling minor border contests and raids between his allies Phraates and Tigranes.

Relying on his naval blockade to wear down Mithridates, Pompey spent 64 BC anne xing the independent and wealthy cities ofSyria,which were incorporated into a new Roman province. In the process, he acquired large amounts of money and prestige, as well as criticism from his opponents in Rome, who argued doing so exceeded his authority. Meanwhile, an ageing Mithridates had been cornered inPanticapaeumby another of his sons,Pharnaces II of Pontus.An attempt to commit suicide by taking poison allegedly failed due to his habit of taking "precautionary antidotes", and he was killed by the rebels. Pharnaces sent his embalmed body to Pompey, in return for which he was granted theBosporan Kingdomand made an ally of Rome.

Re-organisation of the East

Further information:Pompey's eastern settlement

The final collapse of theSeleucid Empireallowed Pompey to annexSyriain 64 BC, but its dissolution destabilised the region, while many of its cities had used the power vacuum to achieve independence.In early 63 BC, Pompey leftAntiochand marched south, occupying coastal cities likeApamea,before crossing theAnti-Lebanon Mountainsand capturingPella, JordanandDamascus.

Judea(blue) in 63 BC, after losing theDecapolis(red) to the north

Pompey's incursion further south, intoJudea,was occasioned on account of its inhabitants, under the leadership ofHyrcanus IIandAristobulus II,having ravagedPhoeniciaand Pompey wanting to bring a stop to it.The initial onslaught was disrupted by theHasmonean Civil War,in which Pompey backed Hyrcanus II over his brother Aristobulus II. When he compelled the latter to surrenderJerusalem,its defenders took refuge in theTemple,which theRomans first stormed,then looted. Judea became a client kingdom ruled by Hyrcanus, while its northern section was incorporated into theDecapolis,a league of semi-autonomous cities (see map). Both Judea and the League were made subordinate to the new province of Syria.

Other organisational changes included creating the province ofBithynia and Pontus,with the rest of Mithridates' territories distributed among Roman allies. Elsewhere,Ariobarzanes I of Cappadociawas restored to his throne, while Lesser Armenia was taken from Tigranes and incorporated intoGalatia,with Pompey's clientDeiotarusbecoming ruler of the new kingdom. Finally, Cilicia received the coastal region ofPamphylia,previously a centre of piracy, along with other inland areas and reorganised into six parts.These actions significantly increased Roman state income and presented Pompey with multiple opportunities to increase his personal wealth and patronage base.

Return to Rome and the First Triumvirate

Denarius minted in 56 BC by Pompey's supporterFaustus Sulla

Before his return to Italy in 62 BC, Pompey paid his troops bonuses totalling around 16,000talents,but despite fears he intended to follow Sulla's example, they were dismissed upon arrival at Brundisium.His journey to Rome drew huge crowds wherever he stopped, showing that although opinion in the Senate was divided, Pompey remained as popular as ever with the masses. He was awarded a third triumph for his achievements in Asia Minor, celebrated on his 45th birthday in 61 BC.

Pompey claimed the new provinces established in the East had increased annual state income from 200 million to 340 millionsesterces,plus an additional payment of 480 million sesterces to the treasury.He refused to provide details of his personal fortune, but given the amounts declared publicly, this must have been enormous. Some of it was used to build one of the most famous structures of Ancient Rome, theTheatre of Pompey.

However, the Senate then refused to ratify the treaties agreed by Pompey as part of his settlement of the East. Opposition was led by theoptimatesCato the YoungerandMetellus Celer,whose sister Mucia had recently been divorced by Pompey, for reasons still disputed.They also defeated a bill to distribute farmland to his veterans, and landless members of the urban poor. A similar measure had been rejected in 63 BC, which arguably made the Senate over confident in their ability to control popular unrest.

TheFirst Triumvirate;left to right,Caesar,Crassus,and Pompey

Although Pompey could not overcomeoptimateopposition on his own, the situation changed when Marius' nephewJulius Caesarsought his endorsement for the consulship in 59 BC. A skilled, unscrupulous, and ambitious politician, an alliance allowed Caesar to harness Pompey's influence with the urban electorate.With additional support from Crassus, Caesar became one of the two consuls for 59 BC, the other being theoptimateMarcus Calpurnius Bibulus.This meant Caesar could help pass legislation sponsored by Pompey and Crassus, while it was in his interest to keep them aligned, an important factor given the rivalry between his two patrons.

Despite appearing to be the most junior, Caesar thus became central to theFirst Triumvirate,an informal political alliance designed to counter-balance theoptimates.Pompey's influence was based on his reputation as a military commander, and popularity with the Roman people.Crassus' wealth allowed him to construct extensive patronage networks, but he lacked the military clout essential for political success in thelate Republican era.

Marcus Tullius Cicero,leader ofoptimateopposition to the triumvirate who became an ally of Pompey

Once elected, Caesar secured the passage of a new agrarian bill, helped by Pompey's veterans, who filled the streets of Rome and allegedly intimidated the Senate. When Bibulus opposed the measure, he was attacked in theforum,and spent the rest of his consulship under virtual house arrest.Caesar then ensured ratification of Pompey's settlements in the east, while theLex Vatiniamade him governor of Gallia Cisalpina andIllyricum.He was also assignedGallia Transalpinaafter its governor died in office, before leaving Rome to launch theGallic Warsin 58 BC. His alliance with Pompey was strengthened when the latter married Caesar's daughter Julia.

Senatorial opposition to the triumvirate was led byCicero,a long-standing Pompeian ally. Despite this, the latter supported the populist politicianPublius Clodius Pulcherin an attack on Cicero for executing Roman citizens without trial during theCatilinarian conspiracy.Although Clodius succeeded in having Cicero exiled, he was recalled to Rome by Pompey eighteen months later in 58 BC.As a result, when shortages of grain caused popular unrest in 57 BC, a grateful Cicero backed Pompey's appointment aspraefectus annonae,a temporary position set up for such occasions.

Pompey and Crassus were competing for command of a new expedition to Asia Minor, and in 56 BC theymetwith Caesar to resolve these issues. Although Crassus was a long-standing rival, there are also indications Pompey felt his status as the foremost soldier of the Republic was threatened by Caesar's success inGaul.With this in mind, Pompey set aside his differences with Crassus to promote their joint candidature as consuls for 55 BC. With Caesar's support, they were duly elected after prolonged periods of the violence which had become a feature of Roman political campaigns.

Once in office, they ensured passage of a law giving Crassus the province of Syria and command of a punitive expedition against Parthia, providing him opportunities for both military glory and loot. Pompey was assigned the restive provinces of Hispania, along with Africa, while Caesar's governorships in Gaul were extended. All three men were given these positions for a period of five years, as well as the right to levy troops and "make peace and war with whomsoever they pleased."

From confrontation to civil war

The Roman Empire and satellite states, prior to the outbreak of civil warc.49 BC

In 54 BC, Caesar continued his conquest of Gaul, Crassus opened his campaign against the Parthians, and Pompey remained in Rome, where his wife Julia died in child birth in September. Contemporary sources suggest that combined with the death of Crassus and his son PubliusatCarrhaein May 53 BC, this removed any obstacle to direct confrontation between Caesar and Pompey.

Consular elections in 52 BC had to be suspended due to widespread violence. Seeking to end his alliance with Caesar, theoptimateBibulus proposed Pompey be elected sole consul, an unprecedented act backed by both Cato and the tribunate.Having restored order, Pompey married Cornelia, widow of Publius Crassus and daughter ofMetellus Scipio Nasica,whom he appointed as his colleague for the last five months of the year.

As consul, Pompey helped enact legislation which some historians view as crucial to understanding the drift to war in 49 BC. Accused of using violence during his consulship in 59 BC, Caesar had previously been shielded by his proconsular immunity. With private support from Pompey, new laws made such prosecutions retrospective, which meant Caesar would probably be put on trial the moment he left Gaul and lost hisImperium.To avoid this, he had secured approval to stand for the consulship in 48 BC while still in Gaul, but another law backed by Pompey required electoral candidates to be physically present in Rome.

Although the two continued to co-operate in public,Pompey clearly viewed his colleague as a threat, as did much of the Senate. Both consuls for 50 BC,PaullusandGaius Claudius,were opponents of Caesar, as wasCurio,a plebeian tribune. They initiated legislation to remove Caesar from his command in Gaul, who allegedly bypassed this by bribing Paullus and Curio.For whatever reason, Curio came up with an alternative proposal; Caesar and Pompey should disarm at the same time, or be declared enemies of the state.

This was a clever move, since it was popular with those who wanted to avoid war, but unacceptable to theoptimateswho saw Caesar as a danger that had to be eliminated.Rejection made open conflict more likely, and the Senate agreed to fund a consular army, organised by Pompey. When he fell ill while recruiting inNaples,the celebrations that followed his recovery allegedly convinced Pompey his popularity was sufficient to see off any opponent.In December, Caesar crossed the Alps with a single veteran legion and arrived atRavenna,close to the border with the Roman Republic.

A significant number of senators opposed any concessions to Caesar, but many also mistrusted Pompey, who has been criticised for "weak and ineffectual leadership" in this period.On 1 January 49 BC, Caesar sent an ultimatum demanding acceptance of his compromise, failing which he would march on Rome "to avenge his country's wrongs". Confident their forces significantly outnumbered those available to Caesar, on 7 January the Senate declared him a public enemy; four days later, he crossed theRubiconinto Italy.

The Road to Pharsalus

Main article:Caesar's civil war

When the war began, Caesar was a rebel with no navy and three understrength legions, while Pompey was backed by all the resources of the Roman state and his clients in the East.However, his position was weaker than it seemed, since he was simply an advisor to the Senate, many of whose members either preferred a negotiated solution, or regarded him with as much suspicion as Caesar. His military strategy had to be approved by the consuls, and he could only issue recommendations, which were not always followed. For example, Cicero rejected a request to help him with recruitment, and Cato refused to take command of Sicily, vital for control of Rome's grain supply.

The Flight of Pompey after Pharsalus,byJean Fouquet

Plans to defend Italy were undone by the speed with which Caesar moved, advancing directly on Rome with minimal resistance. Although outnumbered, his troops were experienced veterans, while many of Pompey's were new recruits, a weakness made worse by lack of co-ordination. Cato's brother-in-law, theoptimateleaderLucius Domitius,was cut off and captured in a hopeless defence ofCorfinium,and his 13,000 men incorporated into Caesar's army.Led byAsinius Pollio,they were later used to occupy Sicily.

Pompey had abandoned Rome, ordering all senators and public officials to accompany him as he withdrew south to Brundisium. From there, he transported his troops across theAdriatictoDyrrhachiuminThessaly,an operation performed with almost complete success.Lacking ships to pursue him, Caesar first secured his rear by subduing Pompeian forces in Hispania, before returning to Rome in December 49 BC. This gave Pompey time to build an army nearly twice the size of his opponents, while his navy destroyed two fleets being built for Caesar, ensuring the Pompeians retained control of the sea lanes.

Despite this, in January 48 BC Caesar managed to cross the Adriatic with seven legions and land in southernAlbania.After capturingOricumandApollonia,he advanced on Pompey's main supply base atDyrrhachium.The latter arrived in time toblockthe attempt, and establish a fortified camp on the other side of the RiverApus,where the two armies remained until spring.Neither commander was anxious to begin hostilities, since Caesar was too weak militarily, while as with Mithridates, Pompey preferred to starve his opponent into submission.

The Pharsalus campaign, 48 BC

In late March the stalemate was broken whenMark Antonyfinally managed to cross the Adriatic with four more legions and land atNymphaeum,some 57 kilometres north of Dyrrachium. Pompey tried to prevent the two Caesarian armies from linking up, by marching north-east and laying an ambush for Antony. The ambush, however, was revealed to Antony by some local Caesarian sympathisers, and he stayed in camp until Caesar approached. Pompey not willing to be caught between the two Caesarian forces withdrew.

Caesar, his army now united with Antony's force, redeployed his forces by sending one-and-a-half legion to win support and gather supplies inAetoliaandThessaly,and a further two legions underDomitius Calvinusto interceptMetellus Scipioin Macedonia. Meanwhile,Gnaeus,Pompey's oldest son, managed to destroy Caesar's fleet at Oricum andLissus,making sure no more reinforcements and supplies would reach Caesar from Italy. Caesar tried to lure Pompey into apitched battleat Asparagium, but the latter refused. The next day Caesar outmaneuvred Pompey and marched for Dyrrachium again. When Pompey arrived at the city Caesar had already set up camp.

Caesar lacked the siege equipment needed to take Dyrrhachium, and could not risk leaving Pompey to threaten his rear. He solved this bybesieging Pompey in his camp.Although the latter had enough food, water was scarce because Caesar had dammed the local rivers, and the Pompeian cavalry lacked forage for their horses. Ending the stalemate became a matter of urgency, and in late July Pompey finally managed to break through part of Caesar's defensive lines. Since this made the blockade pointless, Caesar cut his losses and withdrew to Apollonia.

At this point Metellus Scipio arrived in Thessaly. Caesar moved south to confront this threat and link up with Domitius Calvinus, allowing his men to sackGomphien route. Pursued by Pompey, he then withdrew to the area nearPharsalus,but failed to tempt Pompey into giving battle.Although it was later claimed Pompey only did so after being pressured by his subordinates, the delay may simply have been a reflection of his natural caution.

Regardless, Pompey's army of around 38,000 outnumbered the 22,000 men commanded by Caesar,with 7,000 cavalry to 1,000.On 9 August he deployed his men in battle formation, planning to use his superior cavalry to outflank his opponent on his left. Caesar had anticipated this, and repulsed the cavalry which fled in confusion, exposing the infantry behind them. Under pressure from the left and in front, the Pompeian army collapsed.

Death

Death of Pompey Magnus; 18th century engraving

Pompey escaped from the battlefield and made his way toMytilene,where he was reunited with his wife Cornelia. Most of his Eastern allies were present at Pharsalus, and had either been killed or captured. The main absentee was 14-year-oldPtolemy XIII,ruler of the wealthy and strategically important kingdom ofEgypt,making it an obvious destination. Cato announced his intention to continue the war from Africa, although most of his senatorial colleagues, including Cicero andMarcus Junius Brutus,made their peace with Caesar, and returned to Rome.

Pompey sailed fromCypruswith a small fleet, and on 28 September 48 BC arrived atPelusiumin Egypt, where Ptolemy was engaged in a bitter civil war with his co-ruler and elder sister,Cleopatra VII.When he went ashore to greet an official delegation, Pompey was killed byLucius Septimius,a Roman officer and former colleague serving in the Egyptian army. His body was cremated by two servants, while the head was kept as evidence.

One suggestion is that Ptolemy and his advisors feared Pompey planned to seize control of Egypt, especially since many Egyptian army officers were Roman mercenaries like Septimius who had previously served with him. At the same time, it seemed an easy way to win Caesar's support against Cleopatra, although ultimately this proved not to be the case.Pompey's head was later returned to Cornelia for burial at his villa in theAlban Hills,while his ignominious death prompted Cicero to write "his life outlasted his power".

Marriages and issue

Main article:Wives of Pompey the Great

Pompey had five wives:

• Antistia.They married in 86 BC and divorced in 82 BC. By her he had no issue.
• Aemilia Scaura.When they married in 82 BC, Aemilia was pregnant by her former husband and died in childbirth in the same year.
• Mucia Tertia.They married in 79 BC and divorced in 61 BC. By her he had two sons and a daughter:
  • Gnaeus Pompeus
  • Pompeia
  • Sextus Pompeus
• Julia,the daughter ofJulius Caesar.They married in 59 BC and she died in childbirth in 54 BC. The child died a few days after birth.
• Cornelia Metella.They married in 52 BC and had no children together.

Generalship

Pompey's military glory was second to none for two decades, yet his skills were occasionally criticized by some of his contemporaries. Sertorius or Lucullus, for instance, were especially critical.Pompey's tactics were usually efficient, albeit not particularly innovative or imaginative, and they could prove insufficient against greater tacticians. However, Pharsalus was his only decisive defeat.At times, he was reluctant to risk an open battle. While not extremely charismatic, Pompey could display tremendous bravery and fighting skills on the battlefield, which inspired his men.While being a superb commander, Pompey also earned a reputation for stealing other generals' victories.

On the other hand, Pompey is usually considered an outstanding strategist and organizer, who could win campaigns without displaying genius on the battlefield, but simply by constantly outmaneuvering his opponents and gradually pushing them into a desperate situation.Pompey was a great forward planner, and had tremendous organizational skill, which allowed him to devise grand strategies and operate effectively with large armies.During his campaigns in the east, he relentlessly pursued his enemies, choosing the ground for his battles.

Above all, he was often able to adapt to his enemies. On many occasions, he acted very swiftly and decisively, as he did during his campaigns in Sicily and Africa, or against the Cilician pirates. During the Sertorian war, on the other hand, Pompey was beaten several times by Sertorius. Therefore, he decided to resort to awar of attrition,in which he would avoid open battles against his chief opponent but instead try to gradually regain the strategic advantage by capturing his fortresses and cities and defeating his junior officers.In some instances, Sertorius showed up and forced Pompey to abandon a siege, only to see him strike somewhere else.This strategy was not spectacular, but it led to constant territorial gains and did much to demoralize the Sertorian forces. By 72 BC, the year of his assassination, Sertorius was already in a desperate situation and his troops were deserting. Against Perpenna, a tactician far inferior to his former commander-in-chief, Pompey decided to revert to a more aggressive strategy and he scored a decisive victory that effectively ended the war.

Against Caesar too, his strategy was sound. During the campaign in Greece, he managed to regain the initiative, join his forces to that of Metellus Scipio (something that Caesar wanted to avoid) and trap his enemy. His strategic position was hence much better than that of Caesar and he could have starved Caesar's army to death.However, he was finally compelled to fight an open battle by his allies, and his conventional tactics proved no match to those of Caesar (who also commanded the more experienced troops).

Literary heritage

Pompey was so striking a figure, and his fall so dramatic, that his story became the subject of frequent literary treatment. In the century after his death, the civil war between himself and Caesar was retold inLucan's epicDe Bello Civili,now known as thePharsaliaafter the culminating battle. In the poem's final sections, however, Pompey's vengeful ghost returns to possess those responsible for his murder in Egypt and bring about their death.

InRenaissanceBritain, too, several plays returned to the subject of "Caesar and Pompey", includingGeorge Chapman'sThe Wars of Pompey and Caesar(c. 1604). Another contemporary treatment byThomas Kyd,Cornelia, or Pompey the Great, his faire Cornelia's tragedy(1594), was a translation from the French ofRobert Garnier.Later in France, Pompey's story was told without the character appearing onstage inPierre Corneille'sLa Mort de Pompée(1643) and this too had English adaptations: asPompey(1663) byCatherine Philips,asPompey the GreatbyEdmund Wallerand others in 1664,and later asThe Death of Pompey(1724) byColley Cibber.

Later in the 18th century, Pompey is made the recipient of a'heroical epistle'in rhyming couplets from a supposed former lover inJohn Hervey's "Flora to Pompey".He also figures in narrative poems of the 19th century.John Edmund Reade's "The Vale of Tempe" records the fugitive's desperate appearance as glimpsed by a bystander in the Greek valley;his arrival in Egypt is related byAlaric Wattsin "The Death of Pompey the Great",and the ruined column raised to mark the site of his killing outside Alexandria is described byNicholas MichellinRuins of Many Lands.These were followed byJohn Masefield's prose dramaThe Tragedy of Pompey the Greatof 1910, covering the period from his decision to fight Caesar to his assassination in Egypt.The play was later filmed for television in 1950 for theBBC Sunday Night Theatre.

Pompey's career is recapitulated a century later in series of historical novels. InColleen McCullough'sMasters of Rome,Pompey is mainly featured in Books III-V, covering his rise to prominence through to his betrayal and murder in Egypt.Pompey is also a recurring character inSteven Saylor'sRoma Sub Rosacrime fiction novels, where he brushes shoulders with Gordianus, the main protagonist of the series.Another fiction series in which Pompey plays a part in the historical background isRobert Harris's trilogy of the life ofCicero.

Chronology of Pompey's life and career

• 29 September 106 BC – Born inPicenum;
• 86 BC – Marriage to Antistia;
• 89 BC – Serves under his father at Asculum (during theSocial War);
• 83 BC – Aligns withSulla,after his return from theFirst Mithridatic Waragainst KingMithridates VI of Pontus,raising a legion and cavalry in hopes of joining him;
• 83–82 BC – Fights for Sulla during the war in Italy. First as cavalry commander then joint-commands and finally commanding an independent army.
• 82 BC – Divorce by Antistia and marriage to Aemilia at the behest of Sulla, but Aemilia is already pregnant and eventually dies during childbirth;
• 82–81 BC – DefeatsGaius Marius' allies in Sicily and Africa;
• 81 BC – Returns to Rome and celebrates first triumph;
• 79 BC – Pompey marriesMucia Tertia,of theMucii Scaevolaefamily;
• 79 BC – Pompey supports the election ofMarcus Aemilius Lepidus,who openly revolts against the Senate a few months later. Pompey suppresses the rebellion with an army raised fromPicenumand puts down the rebellion, killing the rebelMarcus Junius Brutus,father ofBrutus,who would go on to assassinateJulius Caesar;
• 76–71 BC – Campaign inHispaniaagainstSertorius;
• 71 BC – Returns to Italy and participates in the suppression of aslave rebellionled bySpartacus,obtaining his second triumph;
• 70 BC – First consulship (withMarcus Licinius Crassus);
• 67 BC – Defeats the pirates and goes to the province of Asia;
• 66–61 BC – Defeats King Mithridates of Pontus, ending the Third Mithridatic War;
• 64–63 BC – Marches through Syria, the Levant, and Judea;
• 61 BC – Divorce by Mucia Tertia;
• 29 September 61 BC – Third triumph;
• April 59 BC – The so-called firsttriumvirateis constituted. Pompey allies withJulius Caesarand Crassus, marrying Caesar's daughterJulia;
• 58–55 BC – Governs Hispania Ulterior by proxy, while the Theater of Pompey is constructed;
• 55 BC – Second consulship (with Marcus Licinius Crassus), and the Theater of Pompey is finally inaugurated;
• 54 BC –Juliadies in childbirth, and the first triumvirate ends;
• 52 BC – Serves as sole consul for anintercalary month,but has a third ordinary consulship with Metellus Scipio for the rest of the year, marrying his daughterCornelia Metella;
• 51 BC – Forbids Caesar (in Gaul) to stand for consulshipin absentia;
• 50 BC – Falls dangerously ill with fever in Campania, but is saved "by public prayers";
• 49 BC – Caesar crosses the Rubicon river and invades Italy, while Pompey retreats to Greece with the conservatives;
• 48 BC – Caesar defeats Pompey's army near Pharsalus, Greece. Pompey retreats to Egypt and is killed atPelusium.

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Further reading

• Hillman, T., P.,The Reputation of Cn. Pompeius Magnus among His Contemporaries from 83 to 59 B.C.,Diss. New York 1989.
• Nicols, Marianne Schoenlin.Appearance and Reality. A Study of the Clientele of Pompey the Great,Diss. Berkeley/Cal. 1992.
• Southern, P., Pompey the Great: Caesar's Friend and Foe, The History Press, 2003;ISBN978-0752425214
• Stockton, D.,The First Consulship of Pompey,Historia22 (1973), 205–18.
• Van Ooteghem, J.,Pompée le Grand. Bâtisseur d’Empire.Brussels 1954.
• Wylie, G., J.,Pompey Megalopsychos,Klio72 (1990), 445–456.