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Portia labiata

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Further information:Portia (spider)

Portia labiata
P. labiatafromHong Kong
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Araneae
Infraorder: Araneomorphae
Family: Salticidae
Genus: Portia
Species:
P. labiata
Binomial name
Portia labiata
(Thorell,1887)[1]
Synonyms
  • Erasinus labiatus(Thorell, 1887)
  • Linus dentipalpisThorell, 1890
  • Linus labiatusThorell, 1887
  • Portia dentipalpis(Thorell, 1890)

Portia labiatais ajumping spider(familySalticidae) found inSri Lanka,India,southern China,Burma(Myanmar),Malaysia,Singapore,Java,Sumatraand thePhilippines.In this medium-sized jumping spider, the front part is orange-brown and the back part is brownish. The conspicuous main eyes provide vision more acute than acat's during the day and 10 times more acute than adragonfly's,[2]and this is essential inP. labiata′s navigation, hunting and mating.

ThegenusPortiahas been called "eight-legged cats", as their hunting tactics are as versatile and adaptable as alion's. All members ofPortiahave instinctive hunting tactics for their most common prey, but often can improvise bytrial and erroragainst unfamiliar prey or in unfamiliar situations, and then remember the new approach.[2]While most jumping spiders prey mainly on insects and by active hunting, females ofPortiaalso buildwebsto catch prey directly and sometimes join their own webs on to those of web-based spiders. Both females and males prefer web spiders as prey, followed by other jumping spiders, and finally insects. In all cases females are more effective predators than males.

Populations fromLos Bañosand fromSagada,both in thePhilippines,have slightly different hunting tactics. In laboratory tests, Los BañosP. labiatarelies more on trial and error than SagadaP. labiatain finding ways to vibrate the prey's web and thus lure or distract the prey. Around Los Baños the web-buildingScytodespallida,which preys on jumping spiders, is very abundant, and spits a sticky gum on prey and potential threats. AP. labiatafrom Los Baños instinctively detours round the back ofS. pallidawhile with plucking the web in a way that makes the prey believe the threat is in front of it. In areas whereS. pallidais absent, the local members ofP. labiatado not use this combination of deception and detouring for a stab in the back. In a test to exploreP. labiata′s ability to solve a novel problem, a miniature lagoon was set up, and the spiders had to find the best way to cross it. Specimens from Sagada, in the mountains, almost always repeated the first option they tried, even when that was unsuccessful. When specimens from Los Baños, beside a lake, were unsuccessful the first time, about three quarters switched to another option.

Adults ofP. labiatasometimes uses "propulsive displays", in which an individual threatens a rival of the same sex, and unreceptive females also threaten males in this way.[c]P. labiatafemales are extremely aggressive to other females, trying to invade and take over each other's webs, which often results incannibalism.A test showed that they minimise the risk of confrontations by usingsilkdraglines asterritorymarks. Another test showed that females can recognise the draglines of the most powerful fighters and prefer to move near the draglines of less powerful ones. Females try to kill and eat their mates during or after copulation, while males use tactics to survive copulation, but sometimes females outwit them. Before being mature enough to mate, juvenile females mimic adult females to attract males as prey. When hunting,P. labiatamature females emit olfactory signals that reduce the risk that any other females, males or juveniles of the same species may contend for the same prey.

Body structure and appearance[edit]

As in most species of thegenus,the bodies ofPortia labiatafemales are 7 to 10 millimetres long[3]: 433 and their carapaces are 2.8 to 3.8 millimetres long.[4]: 103-105 Males' bodies are 5 to 7.5 millimetres long,[3]: 433 with carapaces 2.4 to 3.3 millimetres long.[4]: 103-105 The carapaces of females are orange-brown, slightly lighter around the eyes, where there are sooty streaks and sometimes a violet to green sheen in certain lights.[4]: 103-105 There is a broad white moustache along the bottom of the carapace, and running back from each main eye is a ridge that looks like a horn.[5]Females' chelicerae are dark orange-brown and decorated with sparse white hairs, which form bands near the carapaces. The abdomens of females are mottled brown and black, and bear hairs of gold, white and black, and there are tufts consisting of brown hairs tipped with white. The carapaces of males are orange-brown, slightly lighter around the eyes, and have brown-black hairs lying on the surface but with a white wedge-shape stripe from the highest point down to the back, and white bands just above the legs. Males' chelicerae are also orange-brown with brown-black markings. The abdomens of males are brown with lighter markings and with brown-black hairs lying on the surface, and a short band of white hairs. The legs of both sexes are dark brown, with light markings in thefemora(the sections of the legs nearest the body).[4]: 103-105 All species of the genusPortiahave elastic abdomens, so that those of both sexes can become almost spherical when well fed, and females' can stretch as much when producingeggs.[6]: 495 

Senses[edit]

"Squared-off"cephalothoraxand eye pattern of jumping spiders

Although other spiders can also jump, salticids includingPortia fimbriatahave significantly better vision than other spiders,[7]: 521 [8]and their main eyes are more acute in daylight than acat's and 10 times more acute than adragonfly's.[2]Jumping spidershave eight eyes, the two large ones in the center-and-front position (the anterior-median eyes, also called "principal eyes"[9]: 51 ) housed in tubes in the head and providing acute vision. The other six are secondary eyes, positioned along the sides of the carapace and acting mainly as movement detectors.[2][10]: 16 In most jumping spiders, the middle pair of secondary eyes are very small and have no known function, but those ofPortiaspecies are relatively large, and function as well as those of the other secondary eyes.[3]: 424 [11]: 232 The main eyes focus accurately on an object at distances from approximately 2 centimetres to infinity,[9]: 51 and in practice can see up to about 75 centimetres.[9]: 53 Like all jumping spiders,P. labiatacan take in only a small visual field at one time,[12]as the most acute part of a main eye can see all of a circle up to 12 millimetres wide at 20 centimetres away, or up to 18 millimetres wide at 30 centimetres away.[13][a]Jumping spider's main eyes can see from red toultraviolet.[14]

Generally thejumping spidersubfamilySpartaeinae,which includes thegenusPortia,cannot discriminate objects at such long distances as the members of subfamiliesSalticinaeorLyssomaninaecan. However, members ofPortiahave vision about as acute as the best of thejumping spiders,for example: the salticineMogrus neglectuscan distinguish prey and conspecifics up to 320 millimetres away (42 times its own body length), whileP. fimbriatacan distinguish these up to 280 millimetres (47 times its own body length).[15]The main eyes of aPortiacan also identify features of the scenery up to 85 times its own body length, which helps the spider to find detours.[16]: 21 

However, aPortiatakes a relatively long time to see objects, possibly because getting a good image out of such tiny eyes is a complex process and needs a lot of scanning.[e]This makes aPortiavulnerable to much larger predators such asbirds,frogsandmantises,which aPortiaoften cannot identify because of the other predator's size.[2]

Spiders, like otherarthropods,have sensors, often modifiedsetae(bristles), for smell, taste, touch and vibration protruding through theircuticle( "skin" ).[17]: 532–533 Unlikeinsects,spiders and other chelicerates do not haveantennae.[18][19]APortiacan sense vibrations from surfaces, and use these for mating and for hunting other spiders in total darkness. It can use air- and surface "smells" to detect prey which it often meets, to identify members of the same species, to recognise familiar members, and to determine the sex of other member of the same species.[16]: 13 

Hunting tactics[edit]

Tactics used by most jumping spiders and by most of genusPortia[edit]

Almost all jumping spiders arepredators,[b]mostly preying on insects, on other spiders, and on other arthropods.[8]The most common procedure is sighting the prey, stalking, fastening asilksafety line to the surface, using the two pairs of back legs to jump on the victim, and finally biting the prey.[20]Most jumping spiders walk throughout the day, so that they maximize their chances of a catch.[21]

Members of the genusPortiahave hunting tactics as versatile and adaptable as a lion's.[2]All members ofPortiahave instinctive tactics for their most common prey, but can improvise bytrial and erroragainst unfamiliar prey or in unfamiliar situations, and then remember the new approach. They can also make detours to find the best attack angle against dangerous prey, even when the best detour takes aPortiaout of visual contact with the prey,[2]and sometimes the planned route leads toabseilingdown a silk thread and biting the prey from behind. Such detours may take up to an hour,[22]and aPortiausually picks the best route even if it needs to walk past an incorrect route.[23]: 422 If aPortiamakes a mistake while hunting another spider, it may itself be killed.[22]

While most jumping spiders prey mainly on insects and by active hunting,[24]: 340 females ofPortiaalso build webs to catch prey directly.[2][22]These capture webs are funnel-shaped and widest at the top[14][6]: 513 and are about 4,000 cubic centimetres in volume.[3]: 429–431 The web is initially built in about 2 hours, and then gradually made stronger.[11]: 239 APortiaoften joins her own web on to one of a web-based non-salticid spider.[2][3]: 432 When not joined to another spiders', aP. labiatafemale's capture web may be suspended from rigid foundations such as boughs and rocks, or from pliant bases such as stems of shrubs.[3]: 432 

A web spider's web is an extension of the web spider's senses, informing the spider of vibrations that signal the arrival of prey and predators. If the intruder is another web spider, these vibrations vary widely depending on the new web spider's species, sex and experience. APortiacan pluck another spider's web with a virtually unlimited range of signals, either to lure the prey out into the open or calming the prey by monotonously repeating the same signal while thePortiawalks slowly close enough to bite it.[24]: 340–341 Such tactics enablePortiaspecies to take web spiders, such asHolocnemus pluchei,[25]from 10% to 200% of their size,[2]and they hunt in all types of webs.[6]: 491 In contrast, other cursorial spiders generally have difficulty moving on webs, and web-building spiders find it difficult to move in webs unlike those they build: sticky webs adhere to cursorial spiders and to web-builders of non-sticky webs; builders ofcribellatewebs have difficulty with non-cribellate webs, and vice versa.[3]: 424 Where the web is sparse, aPortiawill use "rotary probing", in which it moves a free leg around until it meets a thread.[3]: 433–434 When hunting in another spider's web, aPortia′s slow, choppy movement and the flaps on its legs make it resemble leaf detritus caught in the web and blown in a breeze.[6]: 514 P. labiataand some otherPortiaspecies use breezes and other disturbances as "smokescreens" in which these predators can approach web spiders more quickly, and revert to a more cautious approach when the disturbance disappears.[26]: 313 A few web spiders run far away when they sense the un-rhythmical gait of aPortiaentering the web – a reaction Wilcox and Jackson call "Portiapanic ".[23]: 418 

If a large insect is struggling in a web,Portiadoes not usually take the insect, but waits for up to a day until the insect stops struggling, even if the prey is thoroughly stuck.[3]: 448 When an insect stuck in a web owned byP. labiata,P. schultzior any regional variant ofP. fimbriata,and next to a web spider's web, the web spider sometimes enters thePortia′s web, and thePortiapursues and catches the web spider.[3]: 440–441, 444 

When catching aninsectoutside a web, aPortiasometimes lunges and sometimes uses a "pick up",[3]: 441 in which it moves its fangs slowly into contact with the prey. In some pick ups,Portiafirst slowly uses its forelegs to manipulate the prey before biting.[3]: 441 P. labiataandP. schultzialso occasionally jump on an insect.[3]: 448 However,Portiaspecies are not very good at catching moving insects[6]: 516 and often ignore them,[13]while some other salticid genera, especially the quick, agileBrettusandCyrba,perform well against small insects.[6]: 516 

When aPortiastalks another jumping spider, the prey generally faces thePortiaand then either runs away or displays as it does to another member of its own species.[3]: 444 [d]

The webs of spiders on whichPortiaspecies prey sometimes contain dead insects and other arthropods which are uneaten or partly eaten.P. labiataand some otherPortiaspecies such asP. fimbriata(in Queensland) andP. schultzisometimesscavengethese corpses if the corpses are not obviously decayed.[3]: 448 

APortiatypically takes 3 to 5 minutes to pursue prey, but some pursuits can take much longer, and in extreme cases close to 10 hours when pursuing a web-based spider.[3]: 439 

AllPortiaspecies eat eggs of other spiders, including eggs of their own species and of other cursorial spiders, and can extract eggs from cases ranging from the flimsy ones ofPholcusto the tough papery ones ofPhiloponella.While onlyP. fimbriata(in Queensland) captures cursorial spiders in their nests, allPortiaspecies steal eggs from empty nests of cursorial spiders.[3]: 448 

The venom ofPortiaspecies is unusually powerful against spiders.[6]: 491 When aPortiastabs a small to medium spider (up to thePortia′s weight[3]: 428 ), including anotherPortia,the prey usually runs away for about 100 to 200 millimetres, enters convulsions, becomes paralysed after 10 to 30 seconds, and continues convulsing for 10 seconds to 4 minutes.Portiaslowly approaches the prey and takes it.[3]: 441–443 Portiausually needs to inflict up to 15 stabbings to completely immobilise a larger spider(1.5 to 2 times to thePortia′s weight[3]: 428 ), and thenPortiamay wait about 20 to 200 millimetres away for 15 to 30 minutes from seizing the prey.[3]: 441–443 Insects are usually not immobilised so quickly but continue to struggle, sometimes for several minutes. IfPortiacannot make further contact, all types of prey usually recover, making sluggish movements several minutes after the stabbing but often starting normal movement only after an hour.[3]: 441–443 

Spiders have a narrow gut that can only cope with liquid food, and have two sets of filters to keep solids out. Some spiders pump digestiveenzymesfrom the midgut into the prey and then suck the liquified tissues of the prey into the gut, eventually leaving behind the empty husk of the prey. Others grind the prey to pulp using the fangs and the bases of thepedipalps,while flooding it with enzymes; in these species the fangs and the bases of the pedipalps form a preoral cavity that holds the food they are processing.[27]: 576 

Occasionally aPortiais killed or injured while pursuing prey up to twicePortia′s size.P. labiatais killed in 2.1% of pursuits and injured but not killed in 3.9%,P. schultziis killed in 1.7% and injured but not killed in 5.3%, andP. fimbriatain Queensland is killed in 0.06% of its pursuits and injured but not killed in another 0.06%. APortia′s especially tough skin often prevents injury, even when its body is caught in the other spider's fangs. When injured,Portiableeds and may lose one or more legs. Spiders' palps and legs break off easily when attacked, 'the palps and legs ofPortiaspecies break off exceptionally easily, which may be a defence mechanism, and they are often seen with missing legs or palps, while other salticids in the same habitat are not seen with missing legs or palps.[3]: 440–450 

Tactics used byPortia labiata[edit]

All performance statistics summarise result of tests in a laboratory, using captive specimens.[3]: 429–430 The following table shows the hunting performance of adult females. In addition toP. labiata,the table shows for comparison the hunting performances ofP. africana,P. schultziand three regional variants ofP. fimbriata.[3]: 424, 432, 434 

Differences in hunting tactics of females[3]: 434, 437, 439 
Prey Performance P. labiata P. africana P. schultzi P. fimbriata
(Q)		 P. fimbriata
(NT)		 P. fimbriata
(SL)
Salticid Tendency to pursue prey 63% 77% 58% 87% 50% 94%
Efficiency in capturing prey 40% 29% 36% 93% 10% 45%
Web-building
spider 		Tendency to pursue prey 83% 74% 84% 91% 94% 64%
Efficiency in capturing prey 79% 65% 72% 92% 81% 83%
Insect Tendency to pursue prey 35% 48% 52% 27% 30% 43%
Efficiency in capturing prey 71% 67% 69% 41% 83% 78%

Notes on this table:

  • "Tendency to pursue prey" is the percentage of tests in which the subject pursues the potential prey, and a pursuit starts when thePortiaeither approaches the prey or shakes the prey's web.[3]: 428–429 
  • "Efficiency in capturing prey" is the percentage of pursuits in which the subject captures the prey.[3]: 428–429 
  • P. labiataspecimens fromSri Lankawere used in this analysis.[3]: 425 
  • "(Q)", "(NT)" and "(SL)" identifyP. fimbriatafrom Queensland, Northern Territory and Sri Lanka.[3]: 425 
  • The prey used was: unspecified jumping spiders;amaurobiidandtheridiidweb-based spiders; andhouseflies.[3]: 428 

A femaleP. labiataoften hangs a capture web from pliant stems and leaves of shrubs and lower branches of trees, rather than from rocks and tree trunks.[3]: 432 Males ofPortiado not build capture webs.[3]: 429 

A femaleP. labiatamore often pursues small jumping spiders and web spiders than larger prey. While it more often catches small jumping spiders than larger ones, it is about equally effective with all sizes of web spiders up to twiceP. labiata′s size.[3]: 437–439 A femaleP. labiatais effective against insects up to twiceP. labiata′s size when the insect is stuck in a non-salticid's web, and against insects not in webs and up toP. labiata′s size, whileP. labiataseldom pursues or catches a larger insect in the open. A femaleP. labiatavery seldom pursues or catches a larger insect in her own web, and is slightly less effective against smaller insects inP. labiata′s web than in other situations.[3]: 439 Males are less efficient in all cases.[3]: 436 

A test in 1997 showed thatP. labiatafrom thePhilippinesand from Sri Lanka have similar preferences for different types of prey, and that the order of preference is: web spiders; jumping spiders; and insects.[28]: 337–339 These preferences apply to both live prey and motionless lures, and toP. labiataspecimens without prey for 7 days ( "well-fed"[28]: 335 ) and without prey for 14 days ( "starved"[28]: 335 ).P. labiataspecimens without prey for 21 days ( "extra-starved" ) showed no preference for different types of prey.[28]: 339 The test included as prey several species of web spiders and jumping spiders, and the selection of the prey species showed no evidence of affecting the results.[28]: 337–339 Insects were represented by the house flyMusca domestica.[28]: 335 

Unlike the Queensland variant ofP. frimbriata,P. labiatahas no special tactics when hunting other jumping spiders.[28]: 343 

P. labiatadoes not prey onants,[29]: 45–46 but is preyed on by the antsOecophylla smaragdinaandOdontomachussp. (species uncertain).[29]: 47 

P. labiatawill sometimes approach a translucent nest containing another spider, and will usually wait facing the prey for up to several hours. OccasionallyP. labiataleaps at the prey in the nest, but this is ineffective.[3]: 447 

Populations fromLos Bañosand fromSagada,both in thePhilippines,have slightly different hunting tactics, and Los Baños has some very dangerous prey spiders. In laboratory tests, Los BañosP. labiatarelies more on trial and error than SagadaP. labiatain finding ways to vibrate the prey's web and thus lure or distract the prey.[30]: 283–284 Around Los Baños the web-buildingScytodespallida,which preys on jumping spiders, is very abundant. All members of the genusScytodesspit a sticky gum on prey and potential threats, and this can immobilise aPortialong enough for theScytodesto wrap thePortiain silk and then bite it. Around Los Baños,P. labiatainstinctively detours round the back ofS. pallidathat is not carryingeggswhile with plucking the web in a way that makesS. pallidabelieve the threat is in front of it.P. labiataprefers to stalk a femaleS. pallidacarrying eggs, as thenS. pallidais reluctant to drop the eggs in order to spit, and in this caseP. labiatasometimes uses a direct attack. In areas whereS. pallidais absent, the local members ofP. labiatado not use this combination of plucking other spiders' webs to deceive the prey and detouring for a stab in the back.[31]

A test in 2001 showed that four jumping species takenectar,either by sucking it from the surface of flowers or biting the flowers with their fangs. The spiders fed in cycles of two to four minutes, then groomed, especially their chelicerae, before another cycle. A more formal part of the test showed that 90 juvenile jumping spiders, includingP. labiata,generally prefer to suck from blotting soaked with a 30% solution of sugar in water rather than paper soaked with pure water. The authors suggest that, in the wild, nectar may be a frequent, convenient way to get some nutrients, as it would avoid the work, risks and costs (such as making venom). Jumping spiders can benefit fromamino acids,lipids,vitaminsand minerals normally found in nectar.[32]

The spiders were divided into four groups:
  • Rewarded only, if:
    • Jumped and then swam
    • Swam without jumping
  • Penalised only, if:
    • Jumped and then swam
    • Swam without jumping

A test in a deliberately artificial environment exploredP. labiata′s ability to solve a novel problem by trial and error. A little island was set up in the middle of a miniature atoll, and the space between with them was filled with water. The gap was too wide for the spiders to jump all the way, and the spiders' options were to leap and then swim or to swim only. The testers encouraged some specimens by using a small scoop to make waves toward the atoll when the spiders chose the option the testers preferred (leap and then swim for some spiders, and swim only for others), and discouraged some specimens by making waves back toward the island when the spiders chose the option the testers did not want – in other words, the testers "rewarded" one group for "successful" behaviour and "penalised" the other group for "unwanted" behaviour.[30]: 284–286 Specimens from Sagada almost always repeated the first option they tried, even when that was unsuccessful. When specimens from Los Baños were unsuccessful the first time, about three quarters switched to the other option, irrespective of whether the first attempt was by leaping and then swimming or by swimming only.[30]: 287–288 

Reproduction and lifecycle[edit]

Beforecourtship,a malePortiaspins a small web between boughs or twigs, and he hangs under that andejaculateson to it.[3]: 467 He then soaks the semen into reservoirs on hispedipalps,[27]: 581–583 which are larger than those of females.[27]: 572–573 

Females of many spider species, includingP. labiata,[33]: 33 [6]: 517 emit volatilepheromonesinto the air, and these generally attract males from a distance.[33]: 36 The silk draglines of female jumping spiders also contain pheromones, which stimulate males to court females and may give information about each female's status, for example whether the female is juvenile, subadult or mature.[33]: 43  Pheromones may help to find jumping spiders' nests, which are usually hidden under rocks or in rolled leaves, making them difficult to be seen.[33]: 36 

Portiaspecies sometimes use "propulsive displays", with which a member threatens a rival of the same species and sex, and unreceptive females also threaten males in this way.[24]: 343 A propulsive display is a series of sudden, quick movements including striking, charging, ramming and leaps.[3]: 455 

A laboratory test showed how males ofP. labiataminimise the risk of meeting each other, by recognising fresh pieces with blotting paper, some containing their own silk draglines and some containing another male's. Males also were attracted by fresh blotting paper containing females' draglines, while females do not response to fresh blotting paper containing males' draglines. This suggested that the males usually search for females, rather than vice versa. Neither sex responded to one week-old blotting paper, irrespective of whether it contained males' or females' draglines. A similar series of tests showed thatP. fimbriatafrom Queensland showed the same patterns of responses between the sexes.[34]

AmongP. labiataand some otherPortiaspecies, when adults of the same species but opposite sexes recognise each other, they display at 10 to 30 centimetres. Males usually wait for 2 to 15 minutes before starting a display, but sometimes a female starts a display first.[3]: 461 

A femaleP. labiatathat sees a male may approach slowly or wait. The male then walks with erect and displaying by waving his legs and palps. If the female does not run away, she gives a propulsive display first. If the male stands his ground and she does not ran away or repeat the propulsive display, he approaches and, if she is mature, they copulate.[3]: 461–464 If the female is sub-adult (one moult from maturity), a male may cohabit in the female's capture web.[3]: 467 Portiaspecies usually mate on a web or on a dragline made by the female.[6]: 518 P. labiatatypically copulates for about 100 seconds,[3]: 465 while other genera can take several minutes or even several hours.[6]: 518 [3]: 465 

Females ofP. labiataandP. schultzitry to kill and eat their mates during or after copulation, by twisting and lunging. The males wait until the females have hunched their legs, making this attack less likely. Males also try toabseilfrom a silk thread to approach from above, but females may manoeuvre to get the higher position. If the female moves at all, the male leaps and runs away.[24]: 343 

Before being mature enough to mate, females ofP. labiataand alsoP. schultzimimic adult females to attract males as prey.[35]

P. labiatafemales are extremely aggressive to other females, trying to invade and take over each other's webs, which often results incannibalism.A laboratory test showed how they minimise the risk of meeting each other, by recognising pieces with blotting paper containing their own silk draglines and pieces contain otherP. labiatafemales' draglines. If obstacles make it impossible to see whether the other is physically present, she avoids blotting paper containing the other's draglines, but moves with no constraint if she can see that the other female is not around. Draglines seem to act asterritorymarks, much as many mammals identify conspecifics byscent marking.[36]P. labiatafemales also avoid rival females of higher fighting ability and spend more time around less powerful fighters. A laboratory test collected samples of the draglines of equal-sized females and then pitted some of them in contests. Other females avoided the draglines of the victors, and spent the majority of their time on draglines of the losers. Similar tests showed that females ofP. fimbriatafrom Australia andP. schultzifrom Kenya do not avoid draglines of a powerful fighter.[37]: 753 

InP. labiataand in some other species, contests between males usually last only 5 to 10 seconds, and only their legs make contact. [3]: 466 Contests betweenPortiafemales are violent[6]: 518 and embraces inP. labiatatypically take 20 to 60 seconds. These occasionally include grappling that sometimes breaks a leg, but more usually one female lunges at the other. Sometimes one knocks the other on her back and the other may be killed and eaten if she does not right herself quickly and run away. If the loser has a nest, the winner takes over and eats any eggs there.[3]: 466–467 

When hunting, mature females ofP. labiata,P. africana,P. fimbriataandP. schultziemit olfactory signals that reduce the risk that any other females, males or juveniles of the same species may contend for the same prey. The effect inhibits aggressive mimicry against a prey spider even if the prey spider is visible, and also if the prey is inhabiting any part of a web. If a female of one of thesePortiaspecies smells a male of the same species, the female stimulates the males to court. ThesePortiaspecies do not show this behaviour when they receive olfactory signals from members of otherPortiaspecies.[38]

P. labiatausually lays eggs on dead, brown leaves about 20 millimetres long, suspended near the top of its capture web, and then covers the eggs with a sheet of silk. If there is no dead leaf available, the female will make a small horizontal silk platform in the capture web, lay the eggs on it, and then cover the eggs.[3]: 434–435 

Portiafemales have never been seen eating their own eggs, but in nature females with eggs of their own have been seen eating eggs of other females of the same species. In a test,P. labiatafemales did not eat their eggs if the testers put them in other female's nests, showing that the test females could identify their own eggs, possibly by chemical means. When the test females and their eggs were restored to their own nests and other females' eggs were also placed in the same nest, the test females ate neither their own eggs nor the "foreign" ones. In nature a female is unlikely to find foreign eggs in her nest, and it might be safest for females to avoid any eggs in their own nests.[39]

Formoulting,all species ofPortiaspin a horizontal web whose diameter is about twice the spider's body length and is suspended only 1 to 4 millimetres below a leaf. The spider lies head down, and often slides down 20 to 30 millimetres during moulting.[6]: 496 Portiaspecies spin a similar temporary web for resting.[6]: 513 

Taxonomy[edit]

P. labiatais one of 17 species in the genusPortiaas of May 2011.[40]This species has been namedSinis fimbriatus(Hasselt, 1882; misidentification),Linus labiatus(Thorell, 1887),Linus dentipalpis(Thorell, 1890),Erasinus dentipalpis(Thorell, 1892),Erasinus labiatus(Simon, 1903) andPortia labiata(Wanless, 1978), and the last name has been used since then.[1]

Portiais in the subfamilySpartaeinae,[41]which is thought to beprimitive.[6]: 491 Molecular phylogeny,a technique that compares theDNAof organisms to reconstruct thetree of life,indicates thatPortiais a member of thecladeSpartaeinae, that Spartaeinae is basal (quite similar to the ancestors of all jumping spiders), thatPortia′s closest relative is the genusSpartaeus,and that the next closest arePhaeaciusandHolcolaetis.[42]: 53 

Ecology[edit]

P. labiatais found inSri Lanka,India,southernChina,Burma(Myanmar),Malaysia,Singapore,Java,Sumatraand thePhilippines. [3]: 425 [4]: 103-105 [43]

The populations ofP. labiatainLos Bañosand inSagada,both in the Philippines, have different environments: Los Baños is a low-lyingtropicalrainforestwhere there are many species of spiders, some of which are especially dangerous toP. labiata;and Sagada is at higher altitude, with pine-forest and fewer species of spiders, none of which are as dangerous toP. labiata.The Los Baños variant has a slightly wider repertoire of tactics.[31][30]: 283–284 

In the Philippines,P. labiatadoes not prey onants,[29]: 45–46 but is preyed on by the antsOecophylla smaragdinaandOdontomachussp. (species uncertain),[29]: 47 and a solitaryOdontomachushas been seen attacking aP. labiata.[29]: 50 In a test the antDiacammavagansusually killed single-handed aP. labiata.[29]: 52 

In popular culture[edit]

P. labiatafeatures prominently in the science fictionChildren of Timeseries byAdrian Tchaikovsky.

Notes[edit]

a:^Jackson and Blest (1982) say, "The resolution of the receptor mosaic of Layer I in the central retina was estimated to be a visual angle of 2.4 arc min, corresponding to 0–12 mm at 20 cm in front of the spider, or 0–18 mm at 30 cm."[13]

b:^Several species of cursorial spiders drinknectaras an occasional supplement their diet, and juveniles of some orb-web spiders digestpollenwhile re-cycling their webs.[44]One jumping spider (as of 2010),Bagheera kiplingi,is almost totallyherbivorous.[45]

c:^"Propulsive displays" are sudden, quick movements including striking, charging, ramming and leaps.[3]: 455 

d:^Except that the Queensland variant ofPortia fimbriatagenerally uses a "cryptic stalking" technique which makes most salticids unaware of this predator.[3]: 444 

e:^The retina is at the end of a tube. The inner end of the tube moves from side to side in one to two cycles per second, and twists 50° in a cycle that takes 10 seconds.[46]: 180–181 

References[edit]

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  3. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxJackson, Robert R.; Susan E. A. Hallas (1986)."Comparative biology of jumping spidersPortia africana,P. albimana,P. fimbriata,P. labiataandP. schultzi,areanophagic, web-building jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae) utilisation of webs, predatory versatility, and intraspecfic interactions ".New Zealand Journal of Zoology.13(4): 423–489.doi:10.1080/03014223.1986.10422978.ISSN0301-4223.Retrieved17 May2011.
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External links[edit]

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