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For other uses, seePotato (disambiguation).

Potato
Potatocultivarsappear in a variety of colors, shapes, and sizes.
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Solanum
Species:
S. tuberosum
Binomial name
Solanum tuberosum
Synonyms

seelist

Thepotato(/pəˈteɪtoʊ/) is astarchyroot vegetablenative to the Americas that is consumed as astaple foodin many parts of the world. Potatoes aretubersof the plantSolanum tuberosum,aperennialin the nightshade familySolanaceae.

Wild potatospeciescan be found from the southern United States tosouthern Chile.Genetic studies show that the cultivated potato has a single origin, in the area of present-day southernPeruand extreme northwesternBolivia.Potatoes were domesticated there about 7,000–10,000 years ago from a species in theS. brevicaulecomplex. Manyvarietiesof the potato are cultivated in theAndesregion of South America, where the species isindigenous.

The Spanishintroduced potatoes to Europein the second half of the 16th century from the Americas. They are astaple foodin many parts of the world and an integral part of much of the world'sfood supply.Following millennia ofselective breeding,there are now over 5,000different varieties of potatoes.The potato remains an essential crop in Europe, especially Northern and Eastern Europe, where per capita production is still the highest in the world, while the most rapid expansion in production during the 21st century was insouthernand eastern Asia, with China and India leading the world production as of 2021.

Like the tomato and the nightshades, the potato is in the genusSolanum;the aerial parts of the potato contain the toxinsolanine.Normal potato tubers that have been grown and stored properly produceglycoalkaloidsin negligible amounts, but, if sprouts and potato skins are exposed to light, tubers can become toxic.

Etymology

The English word "potato" comes from Spanishpatata,in turn fromTaínobatata,which means "sweet potato",not the plant now known as simply" potato ".[1]

The name "spud" for a potato is from the 15th centuryspudde,a short knife or dagger, probably related to Danishspyd,"spear". From around 1840, the name transferred to the tuber itself.[2]

At least six languages—Afrikaans, Dutch, French, (West) Frisian, Hebrew, Persian[3]and some variants of German—use a term for "potato" that means "earth apple" or "ground apple".[4][5]

Description

Morphology of the potato plant; tubers are forming from stolons.

Potato plants are herbaceousperennialsthat grow up to 1 metre (3.3 ft) high. The stems are hairy. The leaves have roughly four pairs ofleaflets.The flowers range from white or pink to blue or purple; they are yellow at the centre, and are insect-pollinated.[6]

The plant developstubers,the potatoes of commerce, to store nutrients. These are not roots but stems that form from thickenedrhizomesat the tips of long thinstolons.On the surface of the tubers there are "eyes," which act as sinks to protect the vegetative buds from which the stems originate. The "eyes" are arranged in helical form. In addition, the tubers have small holes that allow breathing, calledlenticels.The lenticels are circular and their number varies depending on the size of the tuber and environmental conditions.[7]Tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties.[8]

After flowering, potato plants producesmall green fruitsthat resemble greencherry tomatoes,each containing about 300 very smallseeds.[9]

Phylogeny

Wild and cultivated potatoes, like thetomato,belong to the genusSolanum,which is a member of the nightshade family, theSolanaceae.That is a diverse family of flowering plants, often poisonous, that includes the mandrake (Mandragora), deadly nightshade (Atropa), and tobacco (Nicotiana), as shown in the outline phylogenetic tree (many branches omitted). The most commonly cultivated potato isS. tuberosum;there are several other species.[10]

Solanaceae

many garden flowers and other species

Nicotiana(tobacco)

Atropa(nightshades)

Mandragora(mandrake)

Capsicum

(sweet and bell peppers)

Solanum

S. lycopersicum(tomato)

S. tuberosum(cultivated potato)

A variety ofS. tuberosum tuberosum,the Chilean potato

The major species grown worldwide isS. tuberosum(atetraploidwith 48chromosomes), and modern varieties of this species are the most widely cultivated. There are also fourdiploidspecies (with 24 chromosomes):S. stenotomum,S. phureja,S. goniocalyx,andS. ajanhuiri.There are twotriploidspecies (with 36 chromosomes):S. chauchaandS. juzepczukii.There is onepentaploidcultivated species (with 60 chromosomes):S. curtilobum.[11]

There are two major subspecies ofS. tuberosum.[11]The Andean potato,S. tuberosum andigena,is adapted to the short-day conditions prevalent in the mountainous equatorial and tropical regions where it originated. The Chilean potatoS. tuberosum tuberosum,native to theChiloé Archipelago,is in contrast adapted to the long-day conditions prevalent in the higher latitude region of southern Chile.[12]

History

Main article:History of the potato

Domestication

Wild potatospeciesoccur from the southern United States to southern Chile.[13]The potato was first domesticated in southernPeruand northwesternBolivia[14]by pre-Columbian farmers, aroundLake Titicaca.[15]Potatoes were domesticated there about 7,000–10,000 years ago from a species in theS. brevicaulecomplex.[14][15][16]

The earliest archaeologically verified potato tuber remains have been found at the coastal site ofAncon(centralPeru), dating to 2500 BC.[17][18]The most widely cultivated variety,Solanum tuberosum tuberosum,is indigenous to theChiloé Archipelago,and has been cultivated by thelocal indigenous peoplesince before theSpanish conquest.[12][19]

Spread

Following theSpanish conquest of the Inca Empire,the Spanish introduced the potato to Europe in the second half of the 16th century as part of theColumbian exchange.The staple was subsequently conveyed by European mariners (possibly including theRussian-American Company) to territories and ports throughout the world, especially their colonies.[20]European and colonial farmers were slow to adopt farming potatoes, but after 1750 they became an important food staple and field crop[20]and played a major role in the European 19th century population boom.[16]According to conservative estimates, the introduction of the potato was responsible for a quarter of the growth inOld Worldpopulation and urbanization between 1700 and 1900.[21]However, lack ofgenetic diversity,due to the very limited number of varieties initially introduced, left the crop vulnerable to disease. In 1845, a plant disease known as late blight, caused by the fungus-likeoomycetePhytophthora infestans,spread rapidly through the poorer communities of western Ireland as well as parts of theScottish Highlands,resulting in the crop failures that led to theGreat Irish Famine.[22][20]

TheInternational Potato Center,based inLima,Peru, holds 4,870 types of potatogermplasm,most of which are traditionallandracecultivars.[23]In 2009 a draft sequence of the potato genome was made, containing 12 chromosomes and 860 million base pairs, making it a medium-sized plant genome.[24]

It had been thought that most potatocultivarsderived from a singleoriginin southernPeruand extreme NorthwesternBolivia,from a species in theS. brevicaulecomplex.[14][15][16]DNA analysis however shows that more than 99% of all current varieties of potatoes are direct descendants of a subspecies that once grew in thelowlandsof south-central Chile.[25]

Most modern potatoes grown in North America arrived through European settlement and not independently from the South American sources. At least one wild potato species,S. fendleri,occurs in North America; it is used in breeding for resistance to anematodespecies that attacks cultivated potatoes. A secondary center of genetic variability of the potato is Mexico, where important wild species that have been used extensively in modern breeding are found, such as the hexaploidS. demissum,used as a source of resistance to the devastatinglate blightdisease (Phytophthora infestans).[22]Another relative native to this region,Solanum bulbocastanum,has been used to genetically engineer the potato to resist potato blight.[26]Many suchwild relativesare useful for breedingresistancetoP. infestans.[27]

Little of thediversityfound inSolanumancestral andwild relativesis found outside the original South American range.[28]This makes these South American species highly valuable in breeding.[28]The importance of the potato to humanity is recognised in theUnited NationsInternational Day of Potato, to be celebrated on 30 May each year, starting in 2024.[29]

Breeding

Potatoes, bothS. tuberosumand most of its wild relatives, areself-incompatible:they bear no useful fruit when self-pollinated. This trait is problematic for crop breeding, as all sexually-produced plants must behybrids.The gene responsible for self-incompatibility, as well as mutations to disable it, are now known. Self-compatibility has successfully been introduced both to diploid potatoes (including a special line ofS. tuberosum) byCRISPR-Cas9.[30]Plants having a 'Sli' gene produce pollen which is compatible to its own parent and plants with similar S genes.[31]This gene was cloned byWageningen UniversityandSolyntain 2021, which would allow for faster and more focused breeding.[30][32]

Diploidhybrid potato breeding is a recent area of potato genetics supported by the finding that simultaneoushomozygosityandfixationof donor alleles is possible.[33]Wild potato species useful for breedingblight resistance includeSolanum desmissumandS. stoloniferum,among others.[34]

Varieties

Further information:List of potato cultivars
Potatoes of different colors

There are some 5,000 potato varieties worldwide, 3,000 of them in theAndesalone — mainly in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Colombia. Over 100 cultivars might be found in a single valley, and a dozen or more might be maintained by a single agricultural household.[35][36] TheEuropean Cultivated Potato Databaseis an online collaborative database of potato variety descriptions updated and maintained by theScottish Agricultural Science Agencywithin the framework of the European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks—which is run by theInternational Plant Genetic Resources Institute.[37] Around 80 varieties are commercially available in the UK.[38]

For culinary purposes, varieties are often differentiated by their waxiness: floury or mealybakingpotatoes have morestarch(20–22%) than waxyboilingpotatoes (16–18%). The distinction may also arise from variation in the comparative ratio of two different potato starch compounds:amyloseandamylopectin.Amylose, a long-chain molecule, diffuses from the starch granule when cooked in water, and lends itself to dishes where the potato is mashed. Varieties that contain a slightly higher amylopectin content, which is a highly branched molecule, help the potato retain its shape after being boiled in water.[39]Potatoes that are good for makingpotato chipsor potato crisps are sometimes called "chipping potatoes", which means they meet the basic requirements of similar varietal characteristics, being firm, fairly clean, and fairly well-shaped.[40]

Immature potatoes may be sold fresh from the field as "creamer"or"new"potatoes and are particularly valued for their taste. They are typically small in size and tender, with a loose skin, and flesh containing a lower level ofstarchthan other potatoes. In the United States they are generally either aYukon Gold potatoor a red potato, called gold creamers or red creamers respectively.[41][42]In the UK, theJersey Royalis a famous type of new potato.[43]

Dozens of potatocultivarshave beenselectively bredspecifically for their skin or fleshcolor,including gold, red, and blue varieties.[44]These contain varying amounts ofphytochemicals,includingcarotenoidsfor gold/yellow orpolyphenolsfor red or blue cultivars.[45]Carotenoid compounds includeprovitamin AAlpha -caroteneandbeta-carotene,which are converted to theessential nutrient,vitamin A,during digestion.Anthocyaninsmainly responsible for red or blue pigmentation in potato cultivars do not have nutritional significance, but are used for visual variety and consumer appeal.[46]In 2010, potatoes werebioengineeredspecifically for these pigmentation traits.[47]

Genetic engineering

Main article:Genetically engineered potato
Amflora potatoes, modified to produce pureamylopectinstarch

Genetic research has produced severalgenetically modifiedvarieties. 'New Leaf', owned byMonsanto Company,incorporates genes fromBacillus thuringiensis(source of mostBttoxinsintranscrop use), which confers resistance to theColorado potato beetle;'New Leaf Plus' and 'New Leaf Y', approved by US regulatory agencies during the 1990s, also include resistance toviruses.McDonald's,Burger King,Frito-Lay,andProcter & Gambleannounced they would not usegenetically modified potatoes,and Monsanto published its intent to discontinue the line in March 2001.[48]

Potato starch contains two types ofglucan,amyloseandamylopectin,the latter of which is most industrially useful. Waxy potato varieties producewaxy potato starch,which is almost entirely amylopectin, with little or no amylose.BASFdeveloped the 'Amflora' potato, which was modified to expressantisense RNAto inactivate the gene forgranule bound starch synthase,an enzyme which catalyzes the formation of amylose.[49]'Amflora' potatoes therefore produce starch consisting almost entirely ofamylopectin,and are thus more useful for the starch industry. In 2010, the European Commission cleared the way for 'Amflora' to be grown in the European Union for industrial purposes only—not for food. Nevertheless, under EU rules, individual countries have the right to decide whether they will allow this potato to be grown on their territory. Commercial planting of 'Amflora' was expected in the Czech Republic and Germany in the spring of 2010, and Sweden and the Netherlands in subsequent years.[50]

The 'Fortuna' GM potato variety developed by BASF was made resistant tolate blightbyintrogressingtwo resistance genes,blb1andblb2,fromS. bulbocastanum,a wild potato native to Mexico.[51][52][53]Rpi-blb1is anucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat(NB-LRR/NLR), an R-gene-produced immunoreceptor.[51]

In October 2011 BASF requested cultivation and marketing approval as a feed and food from the EFSA. In 2012, GMO development in Europe was stopped by BASF.[54][55]In November 2014, theUnited States Department of Agriculture(USDA) approved a genetically modified potato developed bySimplot,which contains genetic modifications that prevent bruising and produce lessacrylamidewhen fried than conventional potatoes; the modifications do not cause new proteins to be made, but rather prevent proteins from being made viaRNA interference.[56]

Genetically modified varieties have met public resistance in the U.S. and in the European Union.[57][58]

Cultivation

Seed potatoes

Potatoes are generally grown from "seed potatoes", tubers specifically grown to be free from disease[clarification needed]and to provide consistent and healthy plants. To be disease free, the areas where seed potatoes are grown are selected with care. In the US, this restricts production of seed potatoes to only 15 states out of all 50 states where potatoes are grown. These locations are selected for their cold, hard winters that kill pests and summers with long sunshine hours for optimum growth.[59]In the UK, most seed potatoes originate inScotland,in areas where westerly winds reduceaphidattacks and the spread ofpotato viruspathogens.[60]

Phases of growth

Potato growth can be divided into five phases. During the first phase, sprouts emerge from the seed potatoes and root growth begins. During the second,photosynthesisbegins as the plant develops leaves and branches above-ground andstolonsdevelop from lower leafaxilson the below-ground stem. In the third phase the tips of the stolons swell, forming newtubers,and the shoots continue to grow, with flowers typically developing soon after. Tuber bulking occurs during the fourth phase, when the plant begins investing the majority of its resources in its newly formed tubers. At this phase, several factors are critical to a good yield: optimalsoil moistureand temperature, soil nutrient availability and balance, and resistance topest attacks.The fifth phase is the maturation of the tubers: the leaves and stems senesce and the tuber skins harden.[61][62]

New tubers may start growing at the surface of the soil. Since exposure to light leads to an undesirable greening of the skins and the development ofsolanineas a protection from the sun's rays, growers cover surface tubers. Commercial growers cover them by piling additional soil around the base of the plant as it grows (called "hilling" up, or in British English "earthing up" ). An alternative method, used by home gardeners and smaller-scale growers, involves covering the growing area withmulchessuch as straw or plastic sheets.[63]

At farm scale, potatoes require a well-drained neutral or mildly acidic soil (pH6 or 7) such as a sandyloam.The soil is prepared using deep tillage, for example with achisel plowor ripper. In areas where irrigation is needed, the field is leveled using a landplane so that water can be supplied evenly. Manure can be added after initial irrigation; the soil is then broken up with adisc harrow.The potatoes are planted using apotato plantermachine in rows 80 centimetres (31 in) apart.[64]At garden scale, potatoes are planted in trenches or individual holes some 15 centimetres (5.9 in) deep in soil, preferably with additional organic matter such as garden compost or manure. Alternatively, they can be planted in containers or bags filled with a free-draining compost.[65] Potatoes are sensitive to heavyfrosts,which damage them in the ground or when stored.[66]

  • Planting
    Planting
  • Field in Fort Fairfield, Maine
    Field inFort Fairfield, Maine
  • Immature potato plants
    Immature potato plants
  • Potatoes grown in a tall bag are common in gardens as they minimize digging.
    Potatoes grown in a tall bag are common in gardens as they minimize digging.

Pests and diseases

Main article:List of potato diseases
Late blight

The historically significantPhytophthora infestans,the cause oflate blight,remains an ongoing problem in Europe[22]and the United States.[67]Other potato diseases includeRhizoctonia,Sclerotinia,Pectobacterium carotovorum(black leg),powdery mildew,powdery scabandleafroll virus.[68][69]

Insects that commonly transmit potato diseases or damage the plants include theColorado potato beetle,thepotato tuber moth,the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), thepotato aphid,Tuta absoluta,beet leafhoppers,thrips,andmites.The Colorado potato beetle is considered the most important insect defoliator of potatoes, devastating entire crops.[70]Thepotato cyst nematodeis a microscopic worm that feeds on the roots, thus causing the potato plants to wilt. Since its eggs can survive in the soil for several years,crop rotationis recommended.[71]

Harvest

A modernpotato harvester

On a small scale, potatoes can be harvested using a hoe or spade, or simply by hand. Commercial harvesting is done with largepotato harvesters,which scoop up the plant and surrounding earth. This is transported up an apron chain consisting of steel links several feet wide, which separates some of the earth. The chain deposits into an area where further separation occurs. The most complex designs use vine choppers and shakers, along with a blower system to separate the potatoes from the plant. The result is then usually run past workers who continue to sort out plant material, stones, and rotten potatoes before the potatoes are continuously delivered to a wagon or truck. Further inspection and separation occurs when the potatoes are unloaded from the field vehicles and put into storage.[72]

Potatoes are usually cured after harvest to improve skin-set. Skin-set is the process by which the skin of the potato becomes resistant to skinning damage. Potato tubers may be susceptible to skinning at harvest and suffer skinning damage during harvest and handling operations. Curing allows the skin to fully set and any wounds to heal. Wound-healing prevents infection and water-loss from the tubers during storage. Curing is normally done at relatively warm temperatures (10 to 16 °C or 50 to 60 °F) with high humidity and good gas-exchange if at all possible.[73]

Storage

Transporting to cold storage in India

Storage facilities need to be carefully designed to keep the potatoes alive and slow the natural process of sprouting which involves the breakdown of starch. It is crucial that the storage area be dark, ventilated well, and, for long-term storage, maintained at temperatures near 4 °C (39 °F). For short-term storage, temperatures of about 7 to 10 °C (45 to 50 °F) are preferred.[74]

Temperatures below 4 °C (39 °F) convert the starch in potatoes into sugar, which alters their taste and cooking qualities and leads to higheracrylamidelevels in the cooked product, especially in deep-fried dishes. The discovery of acrylamides in starchy foods in 2002 has caused concern, but it is not likely that the acrylamides in food, even if it is somewhat burnt, causes cancer in humans.[75]

Chemicals are used to suppress sprouting of tubers during storage.Chlorprophamis the main chemical used, but it has been banned in the EU over toxicity concerns.[76]Alternatives includeethylene,spearmint and orange oils, and1,4-dimethylnaphthalene.[76]

Under optimum conditions in commercial warehouses, potatoes can be stored for up to 10–12 months.[74]The commercial storage and retrieval of potatoes involves several phases: firstdryingsurface moisture;wound healingat 85% to 95%relative humidityand temperatures below 25 °C (77 °F); a stagedcooling phase;aholdingphase; and areconditioningphase, during which the tubers are slowly warmed.Mechanical ventilationis used at various points during the process to prevent condensation and the accumulation of carbon dioxide.[74]

Production

Main articles:Potato processing industryandList of countries by potato production
Potato production – 2021
Country Production
(millions oftonnes)
China 94.3
India 54.2
Ukraine 21.4
United States 18.6
Russia 18.3
World 376
Source:FAOSTATof the United Nations[77]
  • Production of potatoes (2019)[78]
    Production of potatoes (2019)[78]
  • Potatoes are one of the most widely produced primary crops in the world.
    Potatoes are one of the most widely produced primary crops in the world.

In 2021, world production of potatoes was 376 million tonnes (370,000,000 long tons; 414,000,000 short tons), led by China with 25% of the total. Other major producers were India andUkraine(table).

The world dedicated 18.6 million hectares (46 million acres) to potato cultivation in 2010; the world average yield was 17.4 tonnes per hectare (7.8 short tons per acre). The United States was the most productive country, with a nationwide average yield of 44.3 tonnes per hectare (19.8 short tons per acre).[79]

New Zealand farmers have demonstrated some of the best commercial yields in the world, ranging between 60 and 80 tonnes per hectare, some reporting yields of 88 tonnes of potatoes per hectare.[80][81][82]

There is a big gap among various countries between high and low yields, even with the same variety of potato. Average potato yields in developed economies ranges between 38 and 44 metric tons per hectare (15 and 18 long ton/acre; 17 and 20 short ton/acre). China and India accounted for over a third of world's production in 2010, and had yields of 14.7 and 19.9 metric tons per hectare (5.9 and 7.9 long ton/acre; 6.6 and 8.9 short ton/acre) respectively.[79]The yield gap between farms in developing economies and developed economies represents an opportunity loss of over 400 million metric tons (440 million short tons; 390 million long tons) of potato, or an amount greater than 2010 world potato production. Potato crop yields are determined by factors such as the crop breed, seed age and quality, crop management practices and the plant environment. Improvements in one or more of these yield determinants, and a closure of the yield gap, could be a major boost to food supply and farmer incomes in the developing world.[83][84]Thefood energyyield of potatoes—about 95 gigajoules per hectare (9.2 million kilocalories per acre)—is higher than that of maize (78 GJ/ha or 7.5 million kcal/acre), rice (77 GJ/ha or 7.4 million kcal/acre), wheat (31 GJ/ha or 3 million kcal/acre), orsoybeans(29 GJ/ha or 2.8 million kcal/acre).[85]

Impact of climate change on production

Further information:Effects of climate change on agriculture

Climate changeis predicted to have significant effects on global potato production.[86]Like many crops, potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmosphericcarbon dioxide,temperature and precipitation, as well as interactions between these factors.[86]As well as affecting potatoes directly, climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests. While the potato is less important thanmaize,rice,wheatandsoybeans,which are collectively responsible for around two-thirds of all calories consumed by humans (both directly and indirectly as animal feed),[87]it still is one of the world's most important food crops.[88]Altogether, one 2003 estimate suggests that future (2040–2069) worldwide potato yield would be 18-32% lower than it was at the time, driven by declines in hotter areas like Sub-Saharan Africa,[86]unless farmers and potato cultivars can adapt to the new environment.[89]

Potato plants and crop yields are predicted to benefit from theCO2 fertilization effect,[90]which would increasephotosynthetic ratesand therefore growth, reduce water consumption through lowertranspirationfromstomataand increase starch content in the edible tubers.[86]However, potatoes are more sensitive to soil water deficits than some other staple crops like wheat.[91]In the UK, the amount ofarable landsuitable forrainfedpotato production is predicted to decrease by at least 75%.[92]These changes are likely to lead to increased demand forirrigationwater, particularly during the potato growing season.[86]

Potatoes grow best under temperate conditions.[93]Temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) have negative effects on potato crops, from physiological damage such as brown spots on tubers, to slower growth, premature sprouting, and lower starch content.[94]These effects reduce crop yield, affecting both the number and the weight of tubers. As a result, areas where current temperatures are near the limits of potatoes' temperature range (e.g. much ofsub-Saharan Africa)[86]will likely suffer large reductions in potato crop yields in the future.[93]On the other hand, low temperatures reduce potato growth and present risk of frost damage.[86]

Changes in pests and diseases

Plant destroyed byColorado potato beetle(Leptinotarsa decemlineata) larvae

Climate change is predicted to affect many potato pests and diseases. These include:

  • Insect pests such as thepotato tuber mothandColorado potato beetle,which are predicted to spread into areas currently too cold for them.[86]
  • Aphidswhich act as vectors for many potato viruses and will spread under increased temperatures.[95]
  • Pathogens causing potato blackleg disease (e.g.Dickeya) grow and reproduce faster at higher temperatures.[96]
  • Bacterial infections such asRalstonia solanacearumwill benefit from higher temperatures and spread more easily through flash flooding.[86]
  • Late blightbenefits from higher temperatures and wetter conditions.[97]Late blight is predicted to become a greater threat in some areas (e.g. in Finland)[86]and become a lesser threat in others (e.g. in the United Kingdom).[90]

Adaptation strategies

Potato production is expected to decline in many areas due to hotter temperatures and decreased water availability. Conversely, production is predicted to become possible in high altitude and latitude areas where it has been limited by frost damage, such as inCanadaandRussia.[93]This will shift potato production to cooler areas, mitigating much of the projected decline in yield. However, this may trigger competition for land between potato crops and other land uses, mostly due to changes in water and temperature regimes.[93]

The other approach is through the development of varieties or cultivars which would be more adapted to altered conditions. This can be done through 'traditional'plant breeding techniquesandgenetic modification.These techniques allow for the selection of specific traits as a new cultivar is developed. Certain traits, such asheat stresstolerance, drought tolerance, fast growth/early maturation and disease resistance, may play an important role in creating new cultivars able to maintain yields under stressors induced by climate change.[94]

For instance, developing cultivars with greater heat stress tolerance would be critical for maintaining yields in countries with potato production areas near current cultivars' maximum temperature limits (e.g.Sub-Saharan Africa,India).[98]Superior drought resistance can be achieved through improved water use efficiency (amount of food produced per amount of water used) or the ability to recover from short drought periods and still produce acceptable yields. Further, selecting for deeper root systems may reduce the need for irrigation.[99]

Content

Nutrition

Potatoes, boiled, cooked in skin, flesh, without salt
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy364 kJ (87 kcal)
20.1 g
Sugars0.9 g
Dietary fiber1.8 g
0.1 g
1.9 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
9%
0.11 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
2%
0.02 mg
Niacin (B3)
9%
1.44 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
10%
0.52 mg
Vitamin B6
18%
0.3 mg
Folate (B9)
3%
10 μg
Vitamin C
14%
13 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
0%
5 mg
Iron
2%
0.31 mg
Magnesium
5%
22 mg
Manganese
6%
0.14 mg
Phosphorus
4%
44 mg
Potassium
13%
379 mg
Sodium
0%
4 mg
Zinc
3%
0.3 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water77 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[100]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[101]
Further information:Staple food § Comparison of 10 staple foods

In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), a boiled potato with skin supplies 87caloriesand is 77% water, 20%carbohydrates(including 2%dietary fiberin the skin and flesh), 2%protein,and contains negligible fat (table). The protein content is comparable to other starchy vegetable staples, as well as grains.[102]

Boiled potatoes are a rich source (20% or more of theDaily Value,DV) ofvitamin B6(23% DV), and contain a moderate amount ofvitamin C(16% DV) andB vitamins,such asthiamine,niacin,andpantothenic acid(10% DV each). Boiled potatoes do not supply significant amounts ofdietary minerals(table).

The potato is rarely eaten raw because raw potato starch is poorly digested by humans.[103]Depending on the cultivar and preparation method, potatoes can have a highglycemic index(GI) and so are often excluded from the diets of individuals trying to follow alow-GI diet.[104][102]There is a lack of evidence on the effect of potato consumption on obesity and diabetes.[102]

In the UK, potatoes are not considered by theNational Health Serviceas counting or contributing towards the recommended dailyfive portions of fruit and vegetables,the 5-A-Day program.[105]

Toxicity

The inediblepotato fruit
Tubers exposed to light
Some toxicsolanine-rich parts ofS. tuberosum

Raw potatoes containtoxicglycoalkaloids,of which the most prevalent are solanine andchaconine.Solanine is found in other plants in the same family,Solanaceae,which includes such plants as deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) and tobacco (Nicotianaspp.), as well as food plants like tomato. These compounds, which protect the potato plant from its predators, are especially concentrated in the aerial parts of the plant. The tubers are low in these toxins, unless they are exposed to light, which makes them go green.[106][107]

Exposure to light, physical damage, and age increase glycoalkaloid content within the tuber.[108]Different potato varieties contain different levels of glycoalkaloids. The 'Lenape' variety, released in 1967, was withdrawn in 1970 as it contained high levels of glycoalkaloids.[109]Since then, breeders of new varieties test for this, sometimes discarding an otherwise promisingcultivar.Breeders try to keep glycoalkaloid levels below 200 mg/kg (0.0032 oz/lb). However, when these commercial varieties turn green, theirsolanineconcentrations can go well above this limit,[110]with higher levels in the potato's skin.[111]

Uses

Culinary

See also:List of potato dishesandPotato cooking

Potato dishes vary around the world.Peruvian cuisinenaturally contains the potato as a primary ingredient in many dishes, as around 3,000 varieties of the tuber are grown there.[112]Chuñois afreeze-driedpotato product traditionally made byQuechuaandAymaracommunities ofPeruandBolivia.[113]In the UK, potatoes form part of the traditional dishfish and chips.Roast potatoes are commonly served as part of aSunday roast dinnerand mashed potatoes form a major component of several other traditional dishes, such asshepherd's pie,bubble and squeak,andbangers and mash.New potatoes may be cooked withmintand are often served with butter. In Germany,Northern(Finland, Latvia and especiallyScandinavian countries), Eastern Europe (Russia,BelarusandUkraine) and Poland, newly harvested, early ripening varieties are considered a special delicacy. Boiled whole and served un-peeled withdill,these "new potatoes" are traditionally consumed withBaltic herring.Puddings made from grated potatoes (kugel,kugelis,andpotato babka) are popular items ofAshkenazi,Lithuanian,andBelarusiancuisine.[114]Cepelinai,the national dish ofLithuania,aredumplingsmade from boiled grated potatoes, usually stuffed withminced meat.[115]In Italy, in theFriuliregion, potatoes serve to make a type of pasta calledgnocchi.[116]Potato is used in northern China where rice is not easily grown, a popular dish beingỚt xanh khoai tây ti(qīng jiāo tǔ dòu sī), made with green pepper, vinegar and thin slices of potato. In the winter, roadside sellers in northern China sell roasted potatoes.[117]

Other uses

Potatoes are sometimes used to brew alcoholic spirits such asvodka,poitín,akvavit,andbrännvin.[118][119]

Potatoes are used asfodderfor livestock. They may be made intosilagewhich can be stored for some months before use.[120][121]

Potato starchis used in the food industry as a thickener and binder for soups and sauces, in the textile industry as an adhesive, and in the paper industry for the manufacturing of papers and boards.[122][123]

Potatoes are commonly used in plant research. The consistentparenchymatissue, the clonal nature of the plant and the low metabolic activity make it an idealmodel tissuefor experiments on wound-response studies and electron transport.[124]

Cultural significance

In mythology

Axomamma,Incan goddess of potatoes

InInca mythology,a daughter of the earth motherPachamama,Axomamma,is the goddess of potatoes. She ensured the fertility of the soil and the growth of the tubers.[125]According toIroquois mythology,the first potatoesgrewout of Earth Woman's feet after shedied giving birthto hertwin sons,Sapling and Flint.[126]

In art

The potato has been an essential crop in the Andes since thepre-Columbian era.TheMocheculture from NorthernPerumade ceramics from the earth, water, and fire. This pottery was a sacred substance, formed in significant shapes and used to represent important themes. Potatoes are represented anthropomorphically as well as naturally.[127] During the late 19th century, numerous images of potato harvesting appeared in European art, including the works ofWillem WitsenandAnton Mauve.[128] Van Gogh's 1885 paintingThe Potato Eatersportrays a family eating potatoes. Van Gogh said he wanted to depict peasants as they really were. He deliberately chose coarse and ugly models, thinking that they would be natural and unspoiled in his finished work.[129] Jean-François Millet'sThe Potato Harvestdepicts peasants working in the plains between Barbizon and Chailly. It presents a theme representative of the peasants' struggle for survival. Millet's technique for this work incorporated paste-like pigments thickly applied over a coarsely textured canvas.[130]

In popular culture

Invented in 1949, and marketed and sold commercially byHasbroin 1952,Mr. Potato Headis an American toy that consists of a plastic potato and attachable plastic parts, such as ears and eyes, to make a face. It was the first toy ever advertised on television.[131][132][133]

In the 2015 fictionalized film,The Martian,stranded astronaut and botanist, Mark Watney, cultivates potatoes in the artificial crew habitat using Martian soil fertilized with frozen feces, and produces water from unused rocket fuel.[134]

See also

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Further reading

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