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Procopius

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This article is about the historian and author of theSecret History.For other persons with the given name, seeProcopius (given name).For the spider genus, seeProcopius (spider).
Procopius
Bornc. AD 500
Caesarea Maritima,Palaestina Prima,Eastern Roman Empire
Diedc. AD 565
OccupationLegal adviser, political commentator
SubjectSecular history
Notable works
  • History of the Wars
  • Buildings
  • Secret History

Procopius of Caesarea(Greek:Προκόπιος ὁ ΚαισαρεύςProkópios ho Kaisareús;Latin:Procopius Caesariensis;c. 500–565) was a prominentlate antiqueGreekscholar and historian fromCaesarea Maritima.[1][2]Accompanying the Roman generalBelisariusinEmperor Justinian's wars, Procopius became the principal Roman historian of the 6th century, writing theHistory of the Wars,theBuildings,and theSecret History.

Early life[edit]

Apart from his own writings, the main source for Procopius's life is an entry in theSuda,[3]a Byzantine Greek encyclopaedia written sometime after 975 which discusses his early life. He was a native ofCaesareain theprovinceofPalaestina Prima.[4]He would have received a conventional upper class education in theGreek classicsandrhetoric,[5]perhaps at the famousschool at Gaza.[6]He may have attended law school, possibly atBerytus(present-dayBeirut) orConstantinople(nowIstanbul),[7][a]and became a lawyer (rhetor).[3]He evidently knewLatin,as was natural for a man with legal training.[b]

Career[edit]

In 527, the first year of the reign of the emperorJustinianI,he became the legal adviser (adsessor) forBelisarius,a general whom Justinian made his chief military commander in a great attempt to restore control over the lost western provinces of the empire.[c]

Procopius was with Belisarius on the eastern front until the latter was defeated at theBattle of Callinicumin 531[11]and recalled to Constantinople.[12]Procopius witnessed theNika riotsof January, 532, which Belisarius and his fellow generalMundusrepressed with a massacre in theHippodromethere.[13]In 533, he accompanied Belisarius on his victorious expedition against theVandal kingdominNorth Africa,took part in the capture ofCarthage,and remained in Africa with Belisarius's successorSolomon the Eunuchwhen Belisarius returned east to the capital. Procopius recorded a few of theextreme weather events of 535–536,although these were presented as a backdrop to Byzantine military activities, such asa mutiny in and around Carthage.[14][d]He rejoined Belisarius for his campaign against theOstrogothic kingdomin Italy and experienced theGothic siege of Romethat lasted a year and nine days, ending in mid-March 538. He witnessed Belisarius's entry into the Gothic capital,Ravenna,in 540. Both theWars[15]and theSecret Historysuggest that his relationship with Belisarius cooled thereafter. When Belisarius was sent back to Italy in 544 to cope witha renewal of the war with the Goths,now led by the able kingTotila,Procopius appears to have no longer been on Belisarius's staff.[citation needed]

Asmagister militum,Belisarius was an "illustrious man" (Latin:vir illustris;Greek:ἰλλούστριος,illoústrios); being hisadsessor,Procopius must therefore have had at least the rank of a "visible man" (vir spectabilis). He thus belonged to the mid-ranking group of the senatorial order (ordo senatorius). However, theSuda,which is usually well-informed in such matters, also describes Procopius himself as one of theillustres.Should this information be correct, Procopius would have had a seat inConstantinople's senate,which was restricted to theillustresunder Justinian. He also wrote that under Justinian's reign in 560, a major Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary was builton the site of the Temple Mount.[16][unreliable source?]

Death[edit]

It is not certain when Procopius died. Many historians—includingHoward-Johnson,Cameron,and Geoffrey Greatrex—date his death to 554, but there was an urban prefect of Constantinople (praefectus urbi Constantinopolitanae) who was called Procopius in 562. In that year, Belisarius was implicated in a conspiracy and was brought before this urban prefect.[citation needed]

In fact, some scholars[who?]have argued that Procopius died at least a few years after 565 as he unequivocally states in the beginning of hisSecret Historythat he planned to publish it after the death of Justinian for fear he would be tortured and killed by the emperor (or even by general Belisarius) if the emperor (or the general) learned about what Procopius wrote (his scathing criticism of the emperor, of his wife, of Belisarius, of the general's wife, Antonia: calling the former "demons in human form" and the latter incompetent and treacherous) in this later history. However, most scholars believe that theSecret Historywas written in 550 and remained unpublished during Procopius' lifetime.[citation needed]

Writings[edit]

Emperor Justinian

The writings of Procopius are the primary source of information for the rule of the emperorJustinianI.Procopius was the author of a history in eight books on the wars prosecuted by Justinian, apanegyricon the emperor's public works projects throughout the empire, and a book known as theSecret Historythat claims to report the scandals that Procopius could not include in his officially sanctioned history for fear of angering the emperor, his wife, Belisarius, and the general's wife. Consequently publication was delayed until all of them were dead to avoid retaliation.

History of the Wars[edit]

Procopius'sWarsorHistory of the Wars(Greek:Ὑπὲρ τῶν Πολέμων Λόγοι,Hypèr tōn Polémon Lógoi,"Words on the Wars";Latin:De Bellis,"On the Wars" ) is his most important work, although less well known than theSecret History.[17]The first seven books seem to have been largely completed by 545 and may have been published as a set. They were, however, updated to mid-century before publication, with the latest mentioned event occurring in early 551. The eighth and final book brought the history to 553.

The first two books—often known asThe Persian War(Latin:De Bello Persico)—deal with the conflict between the Romans andSassanid PersiainMesopotamia,Syria,Armenia,Lazica,andIberia(present-dayGeorgia).[18]It details the campaigns of the Sassanid shahKavadhI,the 532'Nika' revolt,the war by Kavadh's successorKhosrauIin 540, his destruction ofAntiochand deportation of its inhabitants to Mesopotamia, and thegreat plaguethat devastated the empire from 542. ThePersian Waralso covers the early career of Procopius's patronBelisariusin some detail.

TheWars’ next two books—known asThe Vandal WarorVandalic War(Latin:De Bello Vandalico)—cover Belisarius'ssuccessful campaignagainst theVandal kingdomthat had occupied Rome's provinces innorthwest Africafor the last century.

The final four books—known asThe Gothic War(Latin:De Bello Gothico)—cover theItalian campaignsby Belisarius and others againstthe Ostrogoths.Procopius includes accounts of the1stand2nd sieges of Naplesand the1st,2nd,and3rd sieges of Rome.He also includes an account of the rise of theFranks(seeArborychoi). The last book describes theeunuchNarses's successful conclusion of the Italian campaign and includes some coverage of campaigns along the empire's eastern borders as well.

TheWarsproved influential on later Byzantine historiography.[19] In the 570sAgathiaswroteHistories,a continuation of Procopius's work in a similar style.

Secret History[edit]

Belisarius may be this bearded figure on the right of EmperorJustinian Iin the mosaic in theChurch of San Vitale,Ravenna,which celebrates the reconquest of Italy by theRoman armyunder the skillful leadership of Belisarius.

Procopius's now famousAnecdota,also known asSecret History(Greek:Ἀπόκρυφη Ἱστορία,Apókryphe Historía;Latin:Historia Arcana), was discovered centuries later at theVatican Libraryin Rome[20]and published inLyonbyNiccolò Alamanniin 1623. Its existence was already known from theSuda,which referred to it as Procopius's "unpublished works" containing "comedy" and "invective" of Justinian, Theodora, Belisarius and Antonina. TheSecret Historycovers roughly the same years as the first seven books ofThe History of the Warsand appears to have been written after they were published. Current consensus generally dates it to 550, or less commonly 558.

In the eyes of many scholars, theSecret Historyreveals an author who had become deeply disillusioned with Emperor Justinian, his wifeTheodora,the generalBelisarius,and his wifeAntonina.The work claims to expose the secret springs of their public actions, as well as the private lives of the emperor and his entourage. Justinian is portrayed as cruel, venal, prodigal, and incompetent. In one passage, it is even claimed that he was possessed by demonic spirits or was himself a demon:

And some of those who have been with Justinian at the palace late at night, men who were pure of spirit, have thought they saw a strange demoniac form taking his place. One man said that the Emperor suddenly rose from his throne and walked about, and indeed he was never wont to remain sitting for long, and immediately Justinian's head vanished, while the rest of his body seemed to ebb and flow; whereat the beholder stood aghast and fearful, wondering if his eyes were deceiving him. But presently he perceived the vanished head filling out and joining the body again as strangely as it had left it.[21]

Similarly, the Theodora of theSecret Historyis a garish portrait of vulgarity and insatiable lust juxtaposed with cold-blooded self-interest, shrewishness, and envious and fearful mean-spiritedness. Among the more titillating (and dubious) revelations in theSecret Historyis Procopius's account of Theodora's thespian accomplishments:

Often, even in the theatre, in the sight of all the people, she removed her costume and stood nude in their midst, except for a girdle about the groin: not that she was abashed at revealing that, too, to the audience, but because there was a law against appearing altogether naked on the stage, without at least this much of a fig-leaf. Covered thus with a ribbon, she would sink down to the stage floor and recline on her back. Slaves to whom the duty was entrusted would then scatter grains of barley from above into the calyx of this passion flower, whence geese, trained for the purpose, would next pick the grains one by one with their bills and eat.[22]

Furthermore,Secret Historyportrays Belisarius as a weak man completely emasculated by his wife, Antonina, who is portrayed in very similar terms to Theodora. They are both said to be former actresses and close friends. Procopius claimed Antonina worked as an agent for Theodora against Belisarius, and had an ongoing affair with Belisarius' godson, Theodosius.

On the other hand, it has been argued that Procopius prepared theSecret Historyas an exaggerated document out of fear that a conspiracy might overthrow Justinian's regime, which—as a kind of court historian—might be reckoned to include him. The unpublished manuscript would then have been a kind of insurance, which could be offered to the new ruler as a way to avoid execution or exile after the coup. If this hypothesis were correct, theSecret Historywould not be proof that Procopius hated Justinian or Theodora.[23]

The Buildings[edit]

Triumphal arch at the entrance to theSangarius Bridge

The Buildings(Greek:Περὶ Κτισμάτων,Perì Ktismáton;Latin:De Aedificiis,"On Buildings" ) is apanegyricon Justinian's public works projects throughout the empire.[24]The first book may date to before the collapse of the first dome ofHagia Sophiain 557, but some scholars think that it is possible that the work postdates the building of thebridge over the Sangariusin the late 550s.[25]Historians considerBuildingsto be an incomplete work due to evidence of the surviving version being a draft with two possible redactions.[24][26]

Buildingswas likely written at Justinian's behest, and it is doubtful that its sentiments expressed are sincere. It tells us nothing further about Belisarius, and it takes a sharply different attitude towards Justinian. He is presented as an idealisedChristianemperor who built churches for the glory of God and defenses for the safety of his subjects. He is depicted showing particular concern for the water supply, building newaqueductsand restoring those that had fallen into disuse. Theodora, who was dead when this panegyric was written, is mentioned only briefly, but Procopius's praise of her beauty is fulsome.

Due to the panegyrical nature of Procopius'sBuildings,historians have discovered several discrepancies between claims made by Procopius and accounts in other primary sources. A prime example is Procopius's starting the reign of Justinian in 518, which was actually the start of the reign of his uncle and predecessorJustin I.By treating the uncle's reign as part of his nephew's, Procopius was able to credit Justinian with buildings erected or begun under Justin's administration. Such works include renovation of the walls ofEdessaafter its 525 flood and consecration of several churches in the region. Similarly, Procopius falsely credits Justinian for the extensive refortification of the cities ofTomisandHistriainScythia Minor.This had actually been carried out underAnastasius I,who reigned before Justin.[27]

Style[edit]

Procopius belongs to the school oflate antiquehistorians who continued the traditions of theSecond Sophistic.They wrote inAttic Greek.Their models wereHerodotus,Polybiusand in particularThucydides.Their subject matter was secular history. They avoided vocabulary unknown to Attic Greek and inserted an explanation when they had to use contemporary words. Thus Procopius includes glosses of monks ( "the most temperate of Christians" ) and churches (as equivalent to a "temple" or "shrine" ), since monasticism was unknown to the ancient Athenians and theirekklesíahad beena popular assembly.[28]

The secular historians eschewed the history of the Christian church. Ecclesiastical history was left to a separate genre afterEusebius.However,Cameronhas argued convincingly that Procopius's works reflect the tensions between the classical and Christian models of history in 6th-century Constantinople. This is supported byWhitby's analysis of Procopius's depiction of the capital andits cathedralin comparison to contemporary pagan panegyrics.[29]Procopius can be seen as depicting Justinian as essentially God'svicegerent,making the case for buildings being a primarily religious panegyric.[30]Procopius indicates that he planned to write an ecclesiastical history himself[31]and, if he had, he would probably have followed the rules of that genre. As far as known, however, such an ecclesiastical history was never written.

Some historians have criticized Propocius's description of some barbarians, for example, he dehumanized the unfamiliar Moors as "not even properly human". This was however, inline with Byzantine ethnographic practice in late antiquity.[32]

Legacy[edit]

A number ofhistorical novelsbased on Procopius's works (along with other sources) have been written.Count Belisariuswas written by poet and novelistRobert Gravesin 1938. Procopius himself appears as a minor character inFelix Dahn'sA Struggle for Romeand inL. Sprague de Camp's alternate history novelLest Darkness Fall.The novel's main character, archaeologist Martin Padway, derives most of his knowledge of historical events from theSecret History.[33]

The narrator inHerman Melville's novelMoby-Dickcites Procopius's description of acaptured sea monsteras evidence of the narrative's feasibility.[34]

List of selected works[edit]

  • J. Haury, ed. (1962–1964) [1905].Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia(in Greek). Revised by G. Wirth. Leipzig:Teubner.4 volumes
  • Dewing, H. B., ed. (1914–1940).Procopius.Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London: Harvard University Press and Hutchinson.Seven volumes, Greek text and English translation.
  • Procopius: The Secret History.Penguin Classics. Translated byWilliamson, G. A.Revised by Peter Sarris. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. 2007 [1966].ISBN978-0140455281.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: others (link)English translation of theAnecdota.
  • Prokopios: The Secret History.Translated by Anthony Kaldellis. Indianapolis: Hackett. 2010.ISBN978-1603841801.

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^For an alternative reading of Procopius as a trained engineer, see Howard-Johnson.[8]
  2. ^Procopius uses and translates a number of Latin words in hisWars.Börm suggests a possible acquaintance with Vergil and Sallust.[9]
  3. ^Procopius speaks of becoming Belisarius's advisor (symboulos) in that year.[10]
  4. ^Before modern times, European and Mediterranean historians, as far as weather is concerned, typically recorded only the extreme or major weather events for a year or a multi-year period, preferring to focus on the human activities of policy makers and warriors instead.

References[edit]

  1. ^Morcillo, Jesús Muñoz; Robertson-von Trotha, Caroline Y. (30 November 2020).Genealogy of Popular Science: From Ancient Ecphrasis to Virtual Reality.Transcript. p. 332.ISBN978-3-8394-4835-9.
  2. ^Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther, eds. (2012).The Oxford Classical Dictionary.Oxford University Press.pp. 1214–1215.ISBN978-0-19-954556-8.Procopius: Greek historian, born in *Caesarea (2) in Palestine c. AD 500.
  3. ^abSudapi.2479. See under 'Procopius' onSuda On Line.
  4. ^Procopius,Wars of JustinianI.1.1;Sudapi.2479. See under 'Procopius' onSuda On Line.
  5. ^Cameron, Averil:Procopius and the Sixth Century,London: Duckworth, 1985, p.7.
  6. ^Evans, James A. S.:Procopius.New York: Twayne Publishers, 1972, p. 31.
  7. ^Cameron,Procopius and the Sixth Century,p. 6.
  8. ^Howard-Johnson, James: 'The Education and Expertise of Procopius'; inAntiquité Tardive10 (2002), 19–30.
  9. ^Börm, Henning (2007)Prokop und die Perser,p.46. Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart.ISBN978-3-515-09052-0
  10. ^Procopius,Wars,1.12.24.
  11. ^Wars,I.18.1-56.
  12. ^Wars,I.21.2.
  13. ^Wars,I.24.1-58.
  14. ^1.
  15. ^Wars,VIII.
  16. ^Dolphin, Lambert (16 July 2021)."Visiting the Temple Mount".Temple Mount.Retrieved18 October2023.
  17. ^Procopius (1914)."Procopius, de Bellis. H.B. (Henry Bronson) Dewing, Ed. [First section:] Procop. Pers. 1.1".Perseus Digital Library.Retrieved18 October2023.[Opening line in Greek] Προκόπιος Καισαρεὺς τοὺς πολέμους ξυνέγραψεν οὓς Ἰουστινιανὸς ὁ Ῥωμαίων βασιλεὺς πρὸς βαρβάρους διήνεγκε τούς τε ἑῴους καὶ ἑσπερίους,... Translation: Procopius from Caesarea wrote the history of the wars of Roman Emperor Justinianus against the barbarians of the East and of the West...Greek text edition by Henry Bronson Dewing, 1914.
  18. ^Börm, Henning.Prokop und die Perser.Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2007.
  19. ^ Cresci, Lia Raffaella. "Procopio al confine tra due tradizioni storiografiche".Rivista di Filologia e di Istruzione Classica129.1 (2001) 61–77.
  20. ^Mendelsohn, Daniel (26 December 2010)."God's Librarians".The New Yorker.
  21. ^Procopius,Secret History12.20–22, trans. Atwater.
  22. ^ProcopiusSecret History9.20–21, trans. Atwater.
  23. ^Cf. Börm (2015).
  24. ^abDowney, Glanville: "The Composition of Procopius, De Aedificiis", inTransactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association78: pp. 171–183;abstractfrom JSTOR.
  25. ^Whitby, Michael: "Procopian Polemics: a review of A. KaldellisProcopius of Caesarea. Tyranny, History, and Philosophy at the End of Antiquity",inThe Classical Review55 (2006), pp. 648ff.
  26. ^Cameron, Averil.Procopius and the Sixth Century.London: Routledge, 1985.
  27. ^Croke, Brian and James Crow: "Procopius and Dara", inThe Journal of Roman Studies73 (1983), 143–159.
  28. ^Wars,2.9.14 and 1.7.22.
  29. ^Buildings,Book I.
  30. ^Whitby, Mary: "Procopius'BuildingsBook I: A Panegyrical Perspective ", inAntiquité Tardive8 (2000), 45–57.
  31. ^Secret History,26.18.
  32. ^Kaldellis, Anthony (2013).Ethnography after antiquity: foreign lands and peoples in Byzantine literature.Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 10.ISBN978-0-8122-0840-5.OCLC859162344.
  33. ^de Camp, L. Sprague (1949).Lest Darkness Fall.Ballantine Books. p. 111.
  34. ^Melville, Herman (1851).Moby-Dick, or, the Whale.Vol. c.1. London: Harper & Brothers.doi:10.5962/bhl.title.62077.

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

Wikisourcehas original works by or about:
Procopius

Texts of Procopius[edit]

Secondary material[edit]

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