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Pashto
پښتو
Pax̌tó
The wordPax̌tówritten in thePashto Alpha bet
Pronunciation[pəʂˈto],[pʊxˈto],[pəçˈto],[pəʃˈto]
Native toAfghanistan,Pakistan
EthnicityPashtuns
SpeakersL1:44 million (2017–2021)[1]
L2:4.9 million (2022)[1]
Standard forms
DialectsPashto dialects
Pashto Alpha bet
Official status
Official language in
Afghanistan
Pakistan
Recognised minority
language in
Regulated by
Pashto Academy Quetta
Language codes
ISO 639-1ps– Pashto, Pushto
ISO 639-2pus– Pushto, Pashto
ISO 639-3pus– inclusive code – Pashto, Pushto
Individual codes:
pst–Central Pashto
pbu–Northern Pashto
pbt–Southern Pashto
wne–Wanetsi
Glottologpash1269Pashto
Linguasphere58-ABD-a
A map of Pashto-speaking areas
Areas in Afghanistan and Pakistan where Pashto is:
the predominant language
spoken alongside other languages
This article containsIPAphonetic symbols.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead ofUnicodecharacters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.
This article containsPashto text.Without properrendering support,you may see unjoined letters or other symbols instead ofPashto script.

Pashto[b](/ˈpʌʃtoʊ/PUH-shto,[6][4][5]/ˈpæʃtoʊ/PASH-toe;[c]پښتو,Pəx̌tó,[pəʂˈto,pʊxˈto,pəʃˈto,pəçˈto]) is anEastern Iranian languagein theIndo-European language family,natively spoken in northwesternPakistanand southern and easternAfghanistan.It has official status in Afghanistan and the Pakistani province ofKhyber Pakhtunkhwa.It is known in historicalPersian literatureasAfghani(افغانی,Afghāni).[8]

Spoken as a native language mostly by ethnicPashtuns,it is one of the two officiallanguages of AfghanistanalongsideDari,[9][10][11]and it is the second-largest provinciallanguage of Pakistan,spoken mainly inKhyber Pakhtunkhwaand the northern districts ofBalochistan.[12]Likewise, it is the primary language of thePashtun diasporaaround the world. The total number of Pashto-speakers is at least 40 million,[13]although some estimates place it as high as 60 million.[14]Pashto is "one of the primary markers of ethnic identity" amongst Pashtuns.[15]

Geographic distribution

Further information:Languages of AfghanistanandLanguages of Pakistan

A national language ofAfghanistan,[16]Pashto is primarily spoken in the east, south, and southwest, but also in some northern and western parts of the country. The exact number of speakers is unavailable, but different estimates show that Pashto is themother tongueof 45–60%[17][18][19][20]of the totalpopulation of Afghanistan.

InPakistan,Pashto is spoken by 15% of its population,[21][22]mainly in the northwestern province ofKhyber Pakhtunkhwaand northern districts ofBalochistanprovince. It is also spoken in parts ofMianwaliandAttockdistricts of thePunjab province,areas ofGilgit-Baltistanand inIslamabad.Pashto speakers are found in other major cities of Pakistan, most notablyKarachi,Sindh,[23][24][25][26]which may have the largest Pashtun population of any city in the world.[27]

Other communities of Pashto speakers are found inIndia,Tajikistan,[28]and northeasternIran(primarily inSouth Khorasan Provinceto the east ofQaen,near the Afghan border).[29]In India most ethnic Pashtun (Pathan) peoples speak the geographically nativeHindi-Urdu languagerather than Pashto, but there are small numbers of Pashto speakers, such as theSheen KhalaiinRajasthan,[30]and the Pathan community in the city ofKolkata,often nicknamed theKabuliwala( "people ofKabul").[31][32]Pashtun diaspora communities in other countries around the world speak Pashto, especially the sizable communities in theUnited Arab Emirates[33]andSaudi Arabia.

Afghanistan

Pashto is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan, along withDari Persian.[34]Since the early 18th century,the monarchs of Afghanistanhave been ethnic Pashtuns (except forHabibullāh Kalakāniin 1929).[35]Persian, the literary language of the royal court,[36]was more widely used in government institutions, while thePashtun tribesspoke Pashto as theirnative tongue.KingAmanullah Khanbegan promoting Pashto during his reign (1926–1929) as a marker of ethnic identity and as a symbol of "official nationalism"[35]leading Afghanistan to independence after the defeat of theBritish Empirein theThird Anglo-Afghan Warin 1919. In the 1930s, a movement began to take hold to promote Pashto as a language of government, administration, and art with the establishment of a Pashto SocietyPashto Anjumanin 1931[37]and the inauguration of theKabul Universityin 1932 as well as the formation of thePashto Academy(PashtoTolana)in 1937.[38]Muhammad Na'im Khan, the minister of education between 1938 and 1946, inaugurated the formal policy of promoting Pashto as Afghanistan's national language, leading to the commission and publication of Pashto textbooks.[39]The Pashto Tolana was later incorporated into the Academy of Sciences Afghanistan in line with Soviet model following theSaur Revolutionin 1978.[40]

Although officially supporting the use of Pashto, the Afghan elite regarded Persian as a "sophisticated language and a symbol of cultured upbringing".[35]KingZahir Shah(reigning 1933–1973) thus followed suit after his fatherNadir Khanhad decreed in 1933 that officials were to study and utilize both Persian and Pashto.[41]In 1936 aroyal decreeof Zahir Shahformallygranted Pashto the status of an official language,[42]with full rights to use in all aspects of government and education – despite the fact that the ethnically Pashtun royal family and bureaucrats mostly spoke Persian.[38]Thus Pashto became anational language,a symbol forPashtun nationalism.

Theconstitutional assemblyreaffirmed the status of Pashto as an official language in 1964 when Afghan Persian was officially renamed toDari.[43][44]The lyrics of thenational anthem of Afghanistanare in Pashto.

Further information:List of Pashto-speaking universities

Pakistan

InBritish India,prior to the creation of Pakistan by the British government, the 1920s saw the blossoming of Pashto language in the thenNWFP:Abdul Ghafar Khanin 1921 established theAnjuman-e- Islah al-Afaghina(Society for the Reformation of Afghans) to promote Pashto as an extension of Pashtun culture; around 80,000 people attended the Society's annual meeting in 1927.[45]In 1955, Pashtun intellectuals includingAbdul Qadirformed thePashto Academy Peshawaron the model of Pashto Tolana formed in Afghanistan.[46]In 1974, the Department of Pashto was established in the University of Balochistan for the promotion of Pashto.[47]

In Pakistan, Pashto is the first language around of 15% of its population (per the 1998 census).[48]However,UrduandEnglishare the two official languages of Pakistan. Pashto has no official status at the federal level. On a provincial level, Pashto is the regional language ofKhyber Pakhtunkhwaand northBalochistan.[49]Yet, the primary medium of education in government schools in Pakistan is Urdu.[50][51]

The lack of importance given to Pashto and its neglect has caused growing resentment amongst Pashtuns.[52][53][54][55]It is noted that Pashto is taught poorly in schools in Pakistan.[56]Moreover, in government schools material is not provided for in the Pashto dialect of that locality, Pashto being a dialectically rich language.[57]Further, researchers have observed that Pashtun students are unable to fully comprehend educational material in Urdu.[58]

ProfessorTariq Rahmanstates:[59]

"The government of Pakistan, faced with irredentist claims from Afghanistan on its territory, also discouraged the Pashto Movement and eventually allowed its use in peripheral domains only after the Pakhtun elite had been co-opted by the ruling elite...Thus, even though there is still an active desire among some Pakhtun activists to use Pashto in the domains of power, it is more of a symbol of Pakhtun identity than one of nationalism."

— Tariq Rahman, The Pashto language and identity-formation in Pakistan

Robert Nicols states:[60]

"In the end, national language policy, especially in the field of education in the NWFP, had constructed a type of three tiered language hierarchy. Pashto lagged far behind Urdu and English in prestige or development in almost every domain of political or economic power..."

— Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors, Pashto Language Policy and Practice in the North West Frontier Province

Although Pashto used as a medium of instruction in schools for Pashtun students results in better understanding and comprehension for students when compared to using Urdu, still the government of Pakistan has only introduced Pashto at the primary levels in state-run schools.[61]Taimur Khan remarks: "the dominant Urdu language squeezes and denies any space for Pashto language in the official and formal capacity. In this contact zone, Pashto language exists but in a subordinate and unofficial capacity".[62]

History

Some linguists have argued that Pashto is descended fromAvestanor a variety very similar to it, while others have attempted to place it closer toBactrian.[63][64][65]However, neither position is universally agreed upon. What scholars do agree on is the fact that Pashto is anEastern Iranian languagesharing characteristics with Eastern Middle Iranian languages such as Bactrian,KhwarezmianandSogdian.[66][67]

Compare with otherEastern Iranian LanguagesandOld Avestan:

"I am seeing you"
Pashto زۀ تا وينم

Zə tā winə́m

Old Avestan[68][69] Azə̄m θβā vaēnamī
Ossetian ӕз дӕ уынын

/ɐz dɐ wənən/

Ormuri[70] از بو تو ځُنِم

Az bū tū dzunim

Yidgha[71] Zo vtō vīnəm əstə (tə)
Munji[72] Zə ftō wīnəm
Shughni[73] Uz tu winum
Wakhi[73] Wuz tau winəm

Strabo,who lived between 64 BC and 24 CE, explains that the tribes inhabiting the lands west of theIndus Riverwere part ofAriana.This was around the time when the area inhabited by the Pashtuns was governed by theGreco-Bactrian Kingdom.From the 3rd century CE onward, they are mostly referred to by the nameAfghan(Abgan).[74][75][76][8]

Abdul Hai Habibibelieved that the earliest modern Pashto work dates back toAmir Kror Suriof the earlyGhuridperiod in the 8th century, and they use the writings found inPata Khazana.Pə́ṭa Xazāná(پټه خزانه) is a Pashtomanuscript[77]claimed to be written by Mohammad Hotak under the patronage of the Pashtun emperorHussain HotakinKandahar;containing an anthology of Pashto poets. However, its authenticity is disputed by scholars such asDavid Neil MacKenzieand Lucia Serena Loi.[78][79]Nile Greencomments in this regard:[80]

"In 1944, Habibi claimed to have discovered an eighteenth-century manuscript anthology containing much older biographies and verses of Pashto poets that stretched back as far as the eighth century. It was an extraordinary claim, implying as it did that the history of Pashto literature reached back further in time than Persian, thus supplanting the hold of Persian over the medieval Afghan past. Although it was later convincingly discredited through formal linguistic analysis, Habibi's publication of the text under the title Pata Khazana ('Hidden Treasure') would (in Afghanistan at least) establish his reputation as a promoter of the wealth and antiquity of Afghanistan's Pashto culture."

— Afghan History Through Afghan Eyes

From the 16th century, Pashto poetry become very popular among the Pashtuns. Some of those who wrote in Pashto areBayazid Pir Roshan(a major inventor of thePashto Alpha bet),Khushal Khan Khattak,Rahman Baba,Nazo Tokhi,andAhmad Shah Durrani,founder of the modern state of Afghanistan or theDurrani Empire.The Pashtun literary tradition grew in the backdrop to weakening Pashtun power following Mughal rule:Khushal Khan Khattakused Pashto poetry to rally for Pashtun unity andPir Bayazidas an expedient means to spread his message to the Pashtun masses.[81]

For instanceKhushal Khattaklaments in:[82]

"The Afghans (Pashtuns) are far superior to the Mughals at the sword,

Were but the Afghans, in intellect, a little discreet. If the different tribes would but support each other,

Kings would have to bow down in prostration before them "

— Khushal Khan Khattak, Selections from the Poetry of the Afghans

Grammar

Main article:Pashto grammar

Pashto is asubject–object–verb(SOV) language withsplit ergativity.In Pashto, this means that the verb agrees with the subject in transitive and intransitive sentences in non-past, non-completed clauses, but when a completed action is reported in any of the past tenses, the verb agrees with the subject if it is intransitive, but with the object if it is transitive.[16]Verbsare inflected for present, simple past, past progressive, present perfect, and past perfect tenses. There is also an inflection for thesubjunctive mood.

Nouns and adjectives areinflectedfor twogenders(masculine and feminine),[83]twonumbers(singular and plural), and fourcases(direct, oblique, ablative, and vocative). The possessor precedes the possessed in the genitive construction, andadjectivescome before thenounsthey modify.

Unlike most other Indo-Iranian languages, Pashto uses all three types ofadpositions—prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions.

Phonology

Main article:Pashto phonology

Vowels

Front Central Back
Close i u
Mid e ə o
Open a ɑ

Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Pashto[84]
Labial Dental/
alveolar 		Post-
alveolar 		Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n ɳ ŋ
Plosive p b t d ʈ ɖ k ɡ (q)
Affricate t͡s d͡z t͡ʃ d͡ʒ
Fricative (f) s z ʃ ʒ ʂ ʐ x ɣ h
Approximant l ɽ* j w
Rhotic r

*The retroflex rhotic or lateral, tends to be alateral flap[𝼈]at the beginning of a syllable or other prosodic unit, and a regularflap[ɽ]orapproximant[ɻ] elsewhere.[85][86]

Vocabulary

See also:Pashto_dialects § Lexemes

In Pashto, most of the native elements of the lexicon are related to otherEastern Iranian languages.[67]As noted by Josef Elfenbein, "Loanwords have been traced in Pashto as far back as the third century B.C., and include words from Greek and probably Old Persian".[87]For instance,Georg Morgenstiernenotes the Pashto wordمېچن[mečә́n]Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 4) (help)i.e.a hand-millas being derived from the Ancient Greek wordμηχανή(mēkhanḗ,i.e. a device).[88]Post-7th century borrowings came primarily fromPersianandHindi-Urdu,with Arabic words being borrowed through Persian,[89]but sometimes directly.[90][91]Modern speech borrows words from English,French,andGerman.[92]

However, a remarkably large number of words are unique to Pashto.[93][94]

Here is an exemplary list of Pure Pashto and borrowings:[95][96]

Pashto Persian Loan Arabic Loan Meaning
چوپړ
čopáṛ		 خدمت
khidmat		 خدمة
khidmah		 service
هڅه
hátsa		 کوشش
kušeš		 effort/try
ملګری,ملګرې
malgə́ray, malgə́re		 دوست
dost		 friend
نړۍ

naṛә́i

جهان

jahān

دنيا

dunyā

world
تود/توده

tod/táwda

گرم

garm

hot
اړتيا

aṛtyā́

ضرورة

ḍarurah

need
هيله

híla

اميد

umid

hope
د... په اړه

də...pə aṛá

باره

bāra

about
بوللـه

bolә́la

قصيدة

qasidah

an ode

Due to the incursion ofPersianandPersianized-Arabicin modern speech,linguistic purismof Pashto is advocated to prevent its own vocabulary from dying out.[94][self-published source][97][98]

Classical vocabulary

There is a lot of old vocabulary that has been replaced by borrowings e.g.پلازplâz[99]'throne' withتختtakht,from Persian.[100][101]Or the wordيګانګيyagānagí[102]meaning 'uniqueness' used byPir Roshan Bayazid.[103]Such classical vocabulary is being reintroduced to modern Pashto.[104]Some words also survive in dialects likeناوې پلاز'the bride-room'.[105]

Example fromKhayr al-Bayān:[103]

... بې يګانګئ بې قرارئ وي او په بدخوئ کښې وي په ګناهان
Transliteration:...be-yagānagə́i,be-kararə́i wi aw pə badxwə́i kx̌e wi pə gunāhā́n
Translation:"... withoutsingularity/uniqueness,without calmness and by bad-attitude are on sin. "

Writing system

Main article:Pashto Alpha bet

Pashto employs thePashto Alpha bet,a modified form of thePerso-Arabic Alpha betorArabic script.[106]In the 16th century,Bayazid Pir Roshanintroduced 13 new letters to the Pashto Alpha bet. The Alpha bet was further modified over the years.

The Pashto Alpha bet consists of 45 to 46 letters[107]and 4 diacritic marks. Latin Pashto is also used.[108][109][110]In Latin transliteration, stress is represented by the following markers over vowels:ә́,á,ā́,ú,ó,íandé.The following table (read from left to right) gives the letters' isolated forms, along with possible Latin equivalents and typical IPA values:

ا
ā
/ɑ,a/ 		ب
b
/b/ 		پ
p
/p/ 		ت
t
/t/ 		ټ
ṭ
/ʈ/ 		ث
(s)
/s/ 		ج
ǧ
/d͡ʒ/ 		ځ
g, dz
/d͡z/ 		چ
č
/t͡ʃ/ 		څ
c, ts
/t͡s/ 		ح
(h)
/h/ 		خ
x
/x/
د
d
/d/ 		ډ
ḍ
/ɖ/ 		ﺫ
(z)
/z/ 		ﺭ
r
/r/ 		ړ
ṛ
/ɺ,ɻ,ɽ/ 		ﺯ
z
/z/ 		ژ
ž
/ʒ/ 		ږ
ǵ (orẓ̌)
/ʐ,ʝ,ɡ,ʒ/ 		س
s
/s/ 		ش
š
/ʃ/ 		ښ
x̌ (orṣ̌)
/ʂ,ç,x,ʃ/
ص
(s)
/s/ 		ض
(z)
/z/ 		ط
(t)
/t/ 		ظ
(z)
/z/ 		ع
(ā)
/ɑ/ 		غ
ğ
/ɣ/ 		ف
f
/f/ 		ق
q
/q/ 		ک
k
/k/ 		ګ
ģ
/ɡ/ 		ل
l
/l/
م
m
/m/ 		ن
n
/n/ 		ڼ
ṇ
/ɳ/ 		ں
̃, ń
/◌̃/ 		و
w, u, o
/w,u,o/ 		ه
h, a
/h,a/ 		ۀ
ə
/ə/ 		ي
y, i
/j,i/ 		ې
e
/e/ 		ی
ay, y
/ai,j/ 		ۍ
əi
/əi/ 		ئ
əi, y
/əi,j/

Dialects

Main article:Pashto dialects

Pashto dialects are divided into two categories, the "soft" southern grouping ofPaṣ̌tō,and the "hard" northern grouping ofPax̌tō(Pakhtu).[111]Each group is further divided into a number of dialects. The Southern dialect ofTareenois the most distinctive Pashto dialect.

اوږد'long'- in different dialects
South Western (Kandahar)
IPA:/uʐd/
North Western (Jalalabad)
IPA:/uɡd/
Northern (Khost)
IPA:/wuɡd/
Southern (Kunduz)
IPA:/wuʐd/
North Eastern (Yusapzai)
IPA:/u.ɡəˈd/
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1.Southern variety

  • Abdailior Kandahar dialect (orSouth Westerndialect)
  • Kakardialect (orSouth Easterndialect)
  • Shiranidialect
  • Mandokheldialect
  • Marwat-Bettanidialect
  • Southern Karlani group
  • Banisi (Banu)dialect

2.Northern variety

  • Central Ghiljidialect (orNorth Westerndialect)
  • Yusapzai and Momand dialect (orNorth Easterndialect)
  • Northern Karlani group
  • Wardakdialect
  • Taniwoladialect
  • Mangal tribedialect
  • Khostidialect
  • Zadrandialect
  • Bangash-Orakzai-Turi-Zazidialect
  • Afrididialect
  • Khogyanidialect

3.TareenoDialect

Literary Pashto

Literary Pashto is the artificial variety of Pashto that is used at times asliterary registerof Pashto. It is said to be based on the North Western dialect, spoken in the centralGhiljiregion. Literary Pashto's vocabulary, also derives from other dialects.[112]

Criticism

There is no actual Pashto that can be identified as "Standard" Pashto, as Colye remarks:[112]

"Standard Pashto is actually fairly complex with multiple varieties or forms. Native speakers or researchers often refer to Standard Pashto without specifying which variety of Standard Pashto they mean...people sometimes refer to Standard Pashto when they mean the most respected or favorite Pashto variety among a majority of Pashtun speakers."

— Placing Wardak among Pashto Varieties, page 4

As David MacKenzie notes there is no real need to develop a "Standard" Pashto:[113]

"The morphological differences between the most extreme north-eastern and south-western dialects are comparatively few and unimportant. The criteria of dialect differentiation in Pashto are primarily phonological. With the use of an Alpha bet which disguises these phonological differences the language has, therefore, been a literary vehicle, widely understood, for at least four centuries. This literary language has long been referred to in the West as 'common' or 'standard' Pashto without, seemingly, any real attempt to define it."

— A Standard Pashto, page 231

Literature

Main article:Pashto literature and poetry

Pashto-speakers have long had a tradition oforal literature,includingproverbs,stories, and poems. Written Pashto literature saw a rise in development in the 17th century mostly due to poets likeKhushal Khan Khattak(1613–1689), who, along withRahman Baba(1650–1715), is widely regarded as among the greatest Pashto poets. From the time ofAhmad Shah Durrani(1722–1772), Pashto has been the language of the court. The first Pashto teaching text was written during the period of Ahmad Shah Durrani by Pir Mohammad Kakar with the title ofMaʿrifat al-Afghānī( "The Knowledge of Afghani [Pashto]" ). After that, the first grammar book of Pashtoverbswas written in 1805 under the title ofRiyāż al-Maḥabbah( "Training in Affection" ) through the patronage of Nawab Mahabat Khan, son ofHafiz Rahmat Khan,chief of theBarech.Nawabullah Yar Khan, another son of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, in 1808 wrote a book of Pashto words entitledʿAjāyib al-Lughāt( "Wonders of Languages" ).

Poetry example

An excerpt from theKalāmofRahman Baba:

زۀ رحمٰن پۀ خپله ګرم يم چې مين يم
چې دا نور ټوپن مې بولي ګرم په څۀ

Pronunciation:[zəraˈmɑnpəˈxpəl.aɡramjəmt͡ʃemaˈjanjəm
t͡ʃedɑnorʈoˈpənmeboˈliɡrampət͡sə]

Transliteration:Zə Rahmā́n pə xpə́la gram yəm če mayán yəm
Če dā nor ṭopə́n me bolí gram pə tsə

Translation:"I Rahman, myself am guilty that I am a lover,
On what does this other universe call me guilty. "

Proverbs

See:Pashto literature and poetry § Proverbs

Pashto also has a rich heritage of proverbs (Pashtomatalúna,sg.matál).[114][115]An example of a proverb:

اوبه په ډانګ نه بېلېږي

Transliteration:Obә́ pə ḍāng nə beléẓ̌i

Translation:"One cannot divide water by [hitting it with] a pole."

Phrases

Greeting phrases

Greeting Pashto Transliteration Literal meaning
Hello ستړی مه شې
ستړې مه شې 		stә́ṛay mә́ še

stә́ṛe mә́ še

May you not be tired
ستړي مه شئ stә́ṛi mә́ šəi May you not be tired [said to people]
په خير راغلې pə xair rā́ğle With goodness (you) came
Thank you مننه manә́na Acceptance [from the verbمنل]
Goodbye په مخه دې ښه pə mә́kha de x̌á On your front be good
خدای پامان xwdā́i pāmā́n From:خدای په امان[With/On God's security]

Colors

List of colors:

سور/ سره sur/sra [red]

šin / šna [green]

کینخي kinaxí [purple]

تور/ توره tor/tóra [black]

šin / šna [blue]

سپین spin/spína [white]

نسواري naswārí [brown]

ژېړ/ ژېړه žeṛ/žéṛa [yellow]

چوڼيا čuṇyā́ [violet]

خړ / خړه xәṛ/xə́ṛa [grey]


List of colors borrowed from neighbouring languages:

Times of the day

Parts of the day in Pashto
Time Pashto Transliteration IPA
Morning ګهيځ gahíź /ɡaˈhid͡z/
Noon غرمه ğarmá /ɣarˈma/
Afternoon ماسپښين māspasx̌ín Kandahar:/mɑs.paˈʂin/
Yusapzai:/mɑs.paˈxin/
Bannuchi:/məʃ.poˈʃin/
Marwat:/mɑʃˈpin/
Later afternoon مازديګر
مازيګر 		māzdigár
māzigár 		/mɑz.di.ˈɡar/
/mɑ.zi.ˈɡar/
Evening ماښام māx̌ā́m Kandahari:/mɑˈʂɑm/
Wardak:/mɑˈçɑm/
Yusapzai:/mɑˈxɑm/
Wazirwola:/lmɑˈʃɔm/
Marwat:/mɑˈʃɑm/
Late evening ماسختن māsxután /mɑs.xwəˈtan/
/mɑs.xʊˈtan/

Months

Pashtuns use theVikrami calendar:[116]

# Vikrami month[117] Pashto Pashto

[Karlāṇí dialects]

Gregorian

months

1 Chaitra چېتر

četә́r

چېتر

četә́r

March–April
2 Vaisākha ساک

sāk

وسيوک

wasyók

April–May
3 Jyeshta جېټ

jeṭ

ژېټ

žeṭ

May–June
4 Āshāda هاړ

hāṛ

اووړ

awóṛ

June–July
5 Shraavana ساوڼ یا پشکال

sāwә́ṇ

واسه

wā́sa

July–August
6 Bhādra بدرو

badrú

بادري

bā́dri

August–September
7 Ashwina آسو

āsú

اسي

ássi

September–October
8 Kartika کاتۍ / کاتک

kātә́i / kāták

کاتيې

kā́tye

October–November
9 Mārgasirsa

(Agrahayana)

منګر

mangә́r

مانګر

mā́ngər

November–December
10 Pausha چيله

čilá

پو

po

December–January
11 Māgha بله چيله

bә́la čilá

کونزله

kunzә́la

January–February
12 Phālguna پاګڼ

pāgáṇ

اربشه

arbә́ša

February–March

Notes

  1. ^Official provincial status[2]
  2. ^Sometimes spelled "Pushtu" or "Pushto"[4][5]
  3. ^The only American pronunciation listed byOxford Online Dictionariesis/ˈpæʃtoʊ/.[7]

References

  1. ^abPashtoatEthnologue(27th ed., 2024)Closed access icon
    Central PashtoatEthnologue(27th ed., 2024)Closed access icon
    Northern PashtoatEthnologue(27th ed., 2024)Closed access icon
    Southern PashtoatEthnologue(27th ed., 2024)Closed access icon
    WanetsiatEthnologue(27th ed., 2024)Closed access icon
  2. ^"Private schools asked to introduce regional languages as compulsory subject".app.pk.28 September 2023.Retrieved28 September2023.
  3. ^Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World.Elsevier. 6 April 2010. pp. 845–.ISBN978-0-08-087775-4.
  4. ^ab"Pashto (also Pushtu)".American Heritage Dictionary.Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company.Retrieved18 July2016.
  5. ^ab"Pashto (also Pushtu)".Oxford Online Dictionaries, UK English.Oxford University Press. Archived fromthe originalon 1 December 2015.
  6. ^"Pashto (less commonly Pushtu)".Merriam-Webster Dictionary.Merriam-Webster, Incorporated.Retrieved18 July2016.
  7. ^"Pashto (also Pushto or Pushtu)".Oxford Online Dictionaries, US English.Oxford University Press. Archived fromthe originalon 20 September 2015.
  8. ^abJohn Leyden, Esq. M.D.; William Erskine, Esq., eds. (1921)."Events Of The Year 910 (1525)".Memoirs of Babur.Packard Humanities Institute.p. 5. Archived fromthe originalon 14 November 2012.Retrieved10 January2012.To the south is Afghanistān. There are ten or eleven different languages spoken in Kābul: Arabic, Persian, Tūrki, Moghuli,Afghani,Pashāi, Parāchi, Geberi, Bereki, Dari and Lamghāni.
  9. ^"Article Sixteen of the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan".2004. Archived fromthe originalon 28 October 2013.Retrieved13 June2012.From among the languages of Pashto, Dari, Uzbeki, Turkmani, Baluchi, Pashai, Nuristani, Pamiri (alsana), Arab and other languages spoken in the country,Pashto and Dari are the official languages of the state.
  10. ^Constitution of Afghanistan–Chapter 1 The State, Article 16 (Languages) and Article 20 (Anthem)
  11. ^Banting, Erinn (2003).Afghanistan: The land.Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 4.ISBN0-7787-9335-4.Retrieved22 August2010.
  12. ^Population by Mother Tongue,Population Census –Pakistan Bureau of Statistics,Government of Pakistan
  13. ^Pashto (2005).Keith Brown(ed.).Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics(2 ed.). Elsevier.ISBN0-08-044299-4.(40 million)
  14. ^Penzl, Herbert; Ismail Sloan (2009).A Grammar of Pashto a Descriptive Study of the Dialect of Kandahar, Afghanistan.Ishi Press International. p. 210.ISBN978-0-923891-72-5.Estimates of the number of Pashto speakers range from 40 million to 60 million...
  15. ^Hakala, Walter (9 December 2011).Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors: The Changing Politics of Language Choice.Brill. p. 55.ISBN978-90-04-21765-2.As is well known, the Pashtun people place a great deal of pride upon their language as an identifier of their distinct ethnic and historical identity. While it is clear that not all those who self-identify as ethnically Pashtun themselves use Pashto as their primary language, language does seem to be one of the primary markers of ethnic identity in contemporary Afghanistan.
  16. ^ab"Pashto language".Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved7 December2010.
  17. ^"Languages: Afghanistan".Central Intelligence Agency.The World Factbook.Retrieved27 October2020.(48% L1 + L2)
  18. ^Brown, Keith; Sarah Ogilvie (2009).Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world.Elsevie. p. 845.ISBN978-0-08-087774-7.Retrieved7 April2012.Pashto, which is mainly spoken south of the mountain range of the Hindu Kush, is reportedly the mother tongue of 60% of the Afghan population.
  19. ^"Pashto".UCLA International Institute: Center for World Languages.University of California, Los Angeles.Archived fromthe originalon 3 January 2009.Retrieved10 December2010.(50%)
  20. ^Kieffer, Ch. M. (1982)."AFGHANISTAN v. Languages".Encyclopædia Iranica.Retrieved11 October2020."Paṧtō (1) is the native tongue of 50 to 55 percent of Afghans".
  21. ^"Government of Pakistan: Population by Mother Tongue"(PDF).statpak.gov.pk.Pakistan Bureau of Statistics.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 17 February 2006.Retrieved18 July2016.
  22. ^"Population by mother tongue"(PDF).pbs.gov.pk.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 10 October 2014.Retrieved15 September2023.
  23. ^Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy (17 July 2009)."Karachi's Invisible Enemy".PBS.Retrieved24 August2010.
  24. ^"In a city of ethnic friction, more tinder".The National. 24 August 2009. Archived fromthe originalon 16 January 2010.Retrieved24 August2010.
  25. ^"Columnists | The Pakhtun in Karachi".Time.28 August 2010.Retrieved8 September2011.
  26. ^[1]Archived9 December 2012 atarchive.today,thefridaytimes
  27. ^Lieven, Anatol (4 May 2021)."An Afghan Tragedy: The Pashtuns, the Taliban and the State".Survival.63(3): 7–36.doi:10.1080/00396338.2021.1930403.ISSN0039-6338.S2CID235219004.
  28. ^"Pashto, Southern".SIL International.Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 14th edition. 2000. Archived fromthe originalon 26 June 2008.Retrieved18 September2010.
  29. ^"Languages of Iran".SIL International.Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Archived fromthe originalon 4 February 2012.Retrieved27 September2010.
  30. ^Haidar, Suhasini (3 February 2018)."Tattooed 'blue-skinned' Hindu Pushtuns look back at their roots".The Hindu.
  31. ^"The 'Kabuliwala' Afghans of Kolkata".BBC News.23 May 2015.
  32. ^"Hindu Pashtuns: How One Granddaughter Uncovered India's Forgotten Links to Afghanistan".8 August 2018.
  33. ^"Languages of United Arab Emirates".SIL International.Ethnologue: Languages of the World.Retrieved27 September2010.
  34. ^Modarresi, Yahya: "Iran, Afghanistan and Tadjikistan, 1911–1916." In:Sociolinguistics,Vol. 3, Part. 3. Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill (eds.). Berlin, De Gryuter: 2006. p. 1915.ISBN3-11-018418-4[2]
  35. ^abcTariq Rahman. "Pashto Language & Identity Formation in Pakistan."Contemporary South Asia,July 1995, Vol 4, Issue 2, p151-20.
  36. ^Lorenz, Manfred. "Die Herausbildung moderner iranischer Literatursprachen." In:Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung,Vol. 36. Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR. Akademie Verlag, Berlin: 1983. P. 184ff.
  37. ^Other sources note 1933, i.e. Johannes Christian Meyer-Ingwersen. Untersuchungen zum Satzbau des Paschto. 1966. Ph.D. Thesis, Hamburg 1966.
  38. ^abHussain, Rizwan.Pakistan and the emergence of Islamic militancy in Afghanistan.Burlington, Ashgate: 2005.p. 63.
  39. ^Green, Nile; Arbabzadah, Nushin (2013).Afghanistan in Ink: Literature Between Diaspora and Nation.Hurst. p. 17.ISBN978-1-84904-204-8.
  40. ^Green, Nile; Arbabzadah, Nushin (2013).Afghanistan in Ink: Literature Between Diaspora and Nation.Hurst.ISBN978-1-84904-204-8.
  41. ^István Fodor, Claude Hagège.Reform of Languages.Buske, 1983. P. 105ff.
  42. ^Campbell, George L.:Concise Compendium of the world's languages.London: Routledge 1999.
  43. ^Dupree, Louis:"Language and Politics in Afghanistan." In:Contributions to Asian Studies.Vol. 11/1978. p. 131–141. E. J. Brill, Leiden 1978. p. 131.
  44. ^Spooner, Bryan: "Are we teaching Persian?" In:Persian Studies in North America: Studies in Honor of Mohammad Ali Jazayery.Mehdi Marashi (ed.). Bethesda, Iranbooks: 1994. p. 1983.
  45. ^Green, Nile; Arbabzadah, Nushin (2013).Afghanistan in Ink: Literature Between Diaspora and Nation.Hurst. p. 109.ISBN978-1-84904-204-8.
  46. ^Brown, Michael Edward; Ganguly, Sumit (2003).Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic Relations in Asia.MIT Press. pp.71.ISBN978-0262523332.
  47. ^"Department of Pashto".web.uob.edu.pk.Retrieved7 September2021.
  48. ^"Government of Pakistan: Population by Mother Tongue"(PDF).statpak.gov.pk.Pakistan Bureau of Statistics.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 17 February 2006.Retrieved18 July2016.
  49. ^Septfonds, D. 2006. Pashto. In: Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. 845 – 848. Keith Brown / Sarah Ogilvie (eds.). Elsevier, Oxford: 2009.
  50. ^Rahman, Tariq(2004),Craig Baxter(ed.),Education in Pakistan a Survey,Pakistan on the Brink: Politics, Economics and Society, Le xing ton Books, p. 172,ISBN978-0195978056
  51. ^Rahim, Bushra (28 September 2014)."Will change in medium of instruction improve education in KP?".dawn.Retrieved18 July2016.
  52. ^Daniel Hallberg (1992).Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan(PDF).Vol. 4. Quaid-i-Azam University & Summer Institute of Linguistics. p. 36 to 37.ISBN969-8023-14-3.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 12 July 2018.Retrieved6 October2014.
  53. ^"د کرښې پرغاړه (په پاکستان کې د مورنیو ژبو حیثیت)".mashaalradio.org.22 July 2014.Retrieved18 July2016.
  54. ^Hywel Coleman (2010).Teaching and learning in Pakistan: the role of language in education(Report).British Council,Pakistan. Archived fromthe originalon 4 November 2010.Retrieved24 September2012.
  55. ^Mohmand, Mureeb (27 April 2014)."The decline of Pashto".The Express Tribune....because of the state's patronage, Urdu is now the most widely-spoken language in Pakistan. But the preponderance of one language over all others eats upon the sphere of influence of other, smaller languages, which alienates the respective nationalities and fuels aversion towards the central leadership...If we look to our state policies regarding the promotion of Pashto and the interests of the Pakhtun political elite, it is clear that the future of the Pashto language is dark. And when the future of a language is dark, the future of the people is dark.
  56. ^Carter, Lynn. "Socio-Economic Profile of Kurram Agency".Planning and Development Department, Peshawar, NWFP.1991:82.
  57. ^Carter and Raza. "Socio-Economic Profile of South Waziristan Agency".Planning and Development Department, Peshawar, NWFP.1990:69.Sources say that this is mainly because the Pushto text books in use in the settled areas of N.W.F.P. are written in the Yusufzai dialect, which is not the dialect in use in the Agency
  58. ^Hallberg, Daniel."Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan"(PDF).National Institute of Pakistan Studies Quaid-i-Azam University and Summer Institute of Linguisitics.4:36.A brief interview with the principal of the high school in Madyan, along with a number of his teachers, helps to underscore the importance of Pashto in the school domain within Pashtoon territory. He reported that Pashto is used by teachers to explain things to students all the way up through tenth class. The idea he was conveying was that students do not really have enough ability in Urdu to operate totally in that language. He also expressed the thought that Pashto-speaking students in the area really do not learn Urdu very well in public school and that they are thus somewhat ill prepared to meet the expectation that they will know how to use Urdu and English when they reach the college level. He likened the education system to a wall that has weak bricks at the bottom.
  59. ^Rahman, Tariq (July 1995)."The Pashto language and identity-formation in Pakistan".Contemporary South Asia.4(2): 151–20.doi:10.1080/09584939508719759.ISSN0958-4935– via Research Gate.
  60. ^Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors: The Changing Politics of Language Choice.Brill. 9 December 2011. p. 279.ISBN978-90-04-21765-2.
  61. ^Khan, M. Taimur S. (2016).Pakistanizing Pashtun: The linguistic and cultural disruption and re-invention of Pashtun.American University. p. 72.Urdu which is the native language of only 7.57 per cent of Pakistanis (though widely spoken as the national language and lingua franca in Pakistan) dominates all other local languages; and Pashto which is the native language of 15.42 per cent of the total population has no official recognition beyond primary school...Despite its limited scope, the Pashto-medium schools were a success as the "achievement tests showed an improvement in Pashto medium schools as compared to Urdu medium schools". Nonetheless, the better results have so far not motivated the government to introduce Pashto-medium schools at a larger scale in Pashtun populated areas.
  62. ^Khan, M. Taimur S. (2016).Pakistanizing Pashtun: The linguistic and cultural disruption and re-invention of Pashtun.American University. pp. 96–97.
  63. ^Darmesteter, James (1890).Chants populaires des Afghans.Paris.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  64. ^Henning (1960), p. 47. "Bactrian thus 'occupies an intermediary position between Pashto and Yidgha-Munji on the one hand, Sogdian, Choresmian, and Parthian on the other: it is thus in its natural and rightful place in Bactria'."
  65. ^Hotak, Muhammad; Habibi, Abd al-Hayy (1997).The Hidden Treasure: A Biography of Pas̲htoon Poets.p. 21.With regard to Morgenstierne's statement that the language is affiliated with eastern Iranian languages there is ample evidence to consider it a Bactrian language.
  66. ^Comrie, Bernard (2009).The world's major languages.Routledge.
  67. ^ab"AFGHANISTAN vi. Paṧto".G. Morgenstierne.Encyclopaedia Iranica. Archived fromthe originalon 22 January 2012.Retrieved10 October2010.Paṧtō undoubtedly belongs to the Northeastern Iranic branch.
  68. ^Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (1988).A Grammar of Gatha-Avestan.BRILL.ISBN978-90-04-08332-5.
  69. ^"Avestan grammar help: Azə̄m θβąm vaēnami?".Linguistics Stack Exchange.Retrieved16 October2021.
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  77. ^"Pata Khazana"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 23 July 2011.Retrieved27 September2010.
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Bibliography

Further reading

  • Morgenstierne, Georg (1978). "The Place of Pashto among the Iranic Languages and the Problem of the Constitution of Pashtun Linguistic and Ethnic Unity".Paṣto Quarterly.1(4): 43–55.
  • Boyle David, Anne; Brugman, Claudia, eds. (2014).Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and its Dialects.Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.doi:10.1515/9781614512318.ISBN978-1-61451-303-2.
Pashto editionofWikipedia,the free encyclopedia
Wikimedia Commons has media related toPashto language.
Look uppashtoin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikivoyage has a phrasebook forPashto.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pashto&oldid=1252509344"