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Pygmy peoples

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This article is about modern ethnic groups. For other uses, seePygmy (disambiguation).

Pygmy peoples
Aka Pygmieson theCongo Basinin 2014
Regions with significant populations
Central Africa, Oceania, Southeast Asia

Inanthropology,pygmy peoplesareethnic groupswhose average height is unusually short. The termpygmyismis used to describe thephenotypeof endemicshort stature(as opposed to disproportionatedwarfismoccurring in isolated cases in a population) for populations in which adult men are on average less than 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) tall.[1]

Although the term is considered derogatory,[2][3]it is primarily associated with theAfrican Pygmies,thehunter-gatherersof theCongo Basin(comprising theBambenga,BambutiandBatwa).[4]

The terms "Asiatic Pygmies" and "Oceanic pygmies" have been used to describe theNegritopopulations ofSoutheast AsiaandAustralo-Melanesianpeoples of short stature.[5]TheTaron peopleofMyanmarare an exceptional case of a "pygmy" population ofEast Asianphenotype.

Etymology

Main article:Pygmy (Greek mythology)
A family from aBa Akapygmy village

The termpygmy,as used to refer to diminutive people, derives fromGreekπυγμαῖοςpygmaiosviaLatinPygmaei(sing.Pygmaeus), derived from πυγμή – meaning a short forearm cubit, or a measure of length corresponding to the distance from the wrist to the elbow or knuckles.[6](See alsoGreek πῆχυςpēkhys.) InGreek mythology,the word describes a tribe ofdwarfs,first described byHomer,the ancient Greek poet, and reputed to live in India and south of modern-day Ethiopia.[7]

In French-speaking Africa, they are sometimes referred to asautochthon[8](autochtone), referring to 'native' or 'indigenous'. Many prefer to be identified by their ethnicity, such as theAka(Mbenga),Baka,Mbuti,andTwa.[9]The termBayaka,the plural form of the Aka/Yaka, is sometimes used in theCentral African Republicto refer to all local pygmies. Likewise, theKongowordBambengais used inCongo.In parts of Africa, they are called Wochua or Achua.[10]

Two men with a woman holding a baby
African pygmies and a European visitor,c. 1921

Short stature

See also:Short statureandHuman height

Various theories have been proposed to explain the short stature of pygmies. Some studies suggest that it could be related to adaptation to lowultravioletlight levels inrainforests.[11][12]This might mean that relatively littlevitamin Dcan be made in human skin, thereby limitingcalciumuptake from the diet for bone growth and maintenance and leading to the evolution of the small skeletal size.[13]

Other explanations include lack of food in the rainforest environment, low calcium levels in the soil, the need to move through dense jungle, adaptation to heat and humidity, and as an association with rapid reproductive maturation under conditions of early mortality.[14]Other evidence points towards unusually low levels of expression of the genes encoding thegrowth hormone receptorandgrowth hormonecompared to the related tribal groups, associated with low serum levels ofinsulin-like growth factor 1and short stature.[15]

Africa

Further information:Classification of Pygmy languages

African Pygmieslive in several ethnic groups in Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo (ROC), Central African Republic, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Madagascar, and Zambia.[9]There are at least a dozen pygmy groups, sometimes unrelated to each other. The best known are theMbenga(Aka and Baka) of the westernCongo basin,who speakBantuandUbangian languages;theMbuti(Efeetc.) of theIturi Rainforest,who speak Bantu andCentral Sudanic languages,and theTwaof theAfrican Great Lakes,who speak BantuRundiandKiga.Most pygmy communities are partially hunter-gatherers, living partially but not exclusively on the wild products of their environment. They trade with neighbouring farmers to acquire cultivated foods and other material items; no group lives deep in the forest without access to agricultural products.[9]It is estimated that there are between 250,000 and 600,000 Pygmies living in theCongo rainforest.[16][17]However, although Pygmies are thought of as forest people, the groups called Twa may live in open swamp or desert.

Distribution of Pygmies and their languages according to Bahuchet (2006). Thesouthern Twaare not shown.

Origins

Expansion to Central Africa by the ancestors of African Pygmies most likely took place before 130,000 years ago, and certainly before 60,000 years ago.[18]A commonly held belief is that African Pygmies are the direct descendants ofLate Stone Agehunter-gatherer peoples of the central African rainforest, who were partially absorbed or displaced by later immigration of agricultural peoples, and adopted theirCentral Sudanic,Ubangian,and Bantu languages. This view has no archaeological support and ambiguous support from genetics and linguistics.[dubious–discuss][19][20][21]

Some 30% ofAka languageis not Bantu, and a similar percentage ofBaka languageis not Ubangian. Much of pygmy vocabulary is botanical, dealing with honey collecting, or is otherwise specialized for the forest and is shared between the two western pygmy groups. It has been proposed that this is the remnant of an independent western pygmy (Mbenga or "Baaka" ) language. However, this type of vocabulary is subject to widespread borrowing among the Pygmies and neighboring peoples, and the "Baaka" language was only reconstructed to the 15th century.[22]

African Pygmy populations are genetically diverse and extremely divergent from all other human populations, suggesting they have an ancient indigenous lineage. Theiruniparental markersrepresent the second-most ancient divergence, after those typically found inKhoisanpeoples.[23]Recent advances in genetics shed some light on the origins of the various Pygmy groups. Researchers found "an early divergence of the ancestors of Pygmy hunter–gatherers and farming populations 60,000 years ago, followed by a split of the Pygmies' ancestors into the Western and Eastern pygmy groups 20,000 years ago."[18]

New evidence suggests East and West African Pygmy children have different growth patterns. The difference between the two groups may indicate the Pygmies' short stature did not start with their common ancestor but instead evolved independently in adapting to similar environments, which adds support that some sets of genes related to height were advantageous in Eastern Pygmy populations, but not in Western Pygmy populations.[18][24][25]

However,Roger Blench[26]argues that the Pygmies are not descended from residual hunter-gatherer groups but rather are offshoots of larger neighboring ethnolinguistic groups that had adopted forest subsistence strategies. Blench notes the lack of clear linguistic and archaeological evidence for the antiquity of pygmy cultures and peoples and also notes that the genetic evidence can be problematic. Blench also notes that there is no evidence of the Pygmies have hunting technology distinctive from that of their neighbors, and argues that the short stature of pygmy populations can arise relatively quickly (in less than a few millennia) due to strong selection pressures.

Culture

Main article:Pygmy music
Bakapygmy dancers in theEast RegionofCameroon

The African Pygmies are particularly known for their usually vocal music, usually characterised by dense contrapuntal communal improvisation.Simha Aromsays that the level of polyphonic complexity of pygmy music was reached in Europe in the 14th century, yet Pygmy culture is unwritten and ancient.[27]Music permeates daily life and there are songs for entertainment as well as specific events and activities.

Violence against Pygmies

Reported genocides

Further information:Rwandan genocideandEffacer le tableau

The pygmy population was a target of theInterahamweduring the 1994Rwandan genocide.Of the 30,000 Pygmies in Rwanda, an estimated 10,000 were killed and another 10,000 were displaced. They have been described as "forgotten victims" of the genocide.[28]

From the end of 2002 through January 2003 around 60,000 Pygmy civilians and 10,000 combatants were killed and oftencannibalizedin an extermination campaign known as "Effacer le tableau"during theSecond Congo War.[29][30]Human rights activists have made demands for the massacre to be recognized asgenocide.[31]

Forced removal
Main article:Fortress conservation

In a strategy referred to asfortress conservation,in national parks in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, such asKahuzi-Biéga National Park;Messok Dja protected area in the Republic of the Congo;[32]and Cameroon'sLobéké National Park,[33]heavily armed park rangers come into deadly conflict with the Pygmy inhabitants who often cut the trees down to sell charcoal.[8]The conservation efforts of national parks in the country are often financed by international organizations such as theWorld Wildlife Fundand often involve removing native inhabitants off the land.[34]Some have argued that the most efficient conservation methods involve giving land rights to the land's indigenous inhabitants.[35]

Reported slavery

In the Republic of the Congo, where Pygmies make up 2% of the population, many Pygmies live asslavestoBantumasters. The nation is deeply stratified between these two major ethnic groups. The Pygmy slaves belong to their Bantu masters from birth in a relationship that the Bantus call a time-honored tradition. A 2007 news report stated that even though Pygmies are responsible for much of the hunting, fishing and manual labor in jungle villages, "Pygmies and Bantus alike say that Pygmies are often paid at the master's whim: in cigarettes, used clothing, or even nothing at all."[36]As a result of pressure fromUNICEFand human-rights activists, in 2009, a law that would grant special protections to the Pygmy people was awaiting a vote by the Congo parliament.[36][37]According to reports made in 2013, this law was never passed.[38]

In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, during theIturi conflict,Ugandan-backed rebel groups were accused by the UN of enslaving Mbutis to prospect for minerals and forage for forest food, with those returning empty handed being killed and eaten.[39]

Ethnic conflict

Main article:Batwa–Luba clashes

In NorthernKatanga Provincestarting in 2013, the Pygmy Batwa people, whom theLuba peopleoften exploit and allegedly enslave,[40]rose up into militias, such as the "Perci" militia, and attacked Luba villages.[41]A Luba militia known as "Elements" counterattacked. More than a thousand people were killed in the first eight months of 2014 alone[42]with the number of displaced people estimated to be 650,000 as of December 2017.[43][40]The weapons used in the conflict are often arrows and axes, rather than guns.[41]

Ota Bengaat theBronx Zooin 1906

Discrimination

See also:Human zoo

Historically, the pygmy have always been viewed as inferior by both colonial authorities and the village-dwelling Bantu tribes.[17]Pygmy children were sometimes captured during the period of theCongo Free State,which exported Pygmy children to zoos throughout Europe, including the world's fair in the United States in 1907.[17]Pygmies are often evicted from their land and given the lowest paying jobs. At a state level, Pygmies are sometimes not considered citizens and are refused identity cards, deeds to land, health care and proper schooling.The Lancetpublished a review showing that Pygmy populations often had worse access to health care than neighboring communities.[44]

Asia and Pacific

Southeast Asia

Atiwoman of the Philippines

NegritosinSoutheast Asia(including theBatakandAetaof the Philippines, theAndamaneseof theAndaman Islands,and theSemangof theMalay Peninsula) are sometimes called pygmies (especially in older literature). Negritos share some common physical features with African pygmy populations, including short stature anddark skin.The name "Negrito", from theSpanishadjective meaning "small black person", was given by early explorers. The explorers who named the Negritos assumed the Andamanese they encountered were from Africa. This belief was, however, discarded by anthropologists who noted that apart from dark skin, peppercorn hair, andsteatopygia,the Andamanese had little in common with any African population, including the African pygmies.[45]Their superficial resemblance to some Africans andMelanesiansis thought to be from living in a similar environment, or simply retentions of the initial human form.[46]

Their origin and the route of their migration to Asia is a matter of great speculation. They are genetically distant from Africans[46]and have been shown to have separated early from Asians,[47]suggesting that they are either surviving descendants of settlers from the earlyout-of-Africa migrationof theGreat Coastal Migrationof theProto-Australoids,or that they are descendants of one of the founder populations of modern humans.[48]

Frank Kingdon-Wardin the early 20th century reported a tribe of pygmyTibeto-Burmanspeakers known as theTaroninhabiting the remote region of Mt.Hkakabo Raziin Southeast Asia on the border of China (YunnanandTibet), Burma, and India.[49]A Burmese survey done in the 1960s reported a mean height of an adult male Taron at 1.43 metres (4 feet 8 inches) and that of females at 1.40 metres (4 feet 7 inches). These are the only known "pygmies" of clearlyEast Asiandescent.

The cause of their diminutive size is unknown, but diet andendogamousmarriage practices have been cited. The population of Taron pygmies has been steadily shrinking and is now down to only a few individuals.[50]In 2013, a link between the Taron and theDerung peopleinYunnan,China, was uncovered by Richard D. Fisher, which may indicate the presence of pygmy populations among the Derung tribe.[51]

Disputed pygmy presence in Australia

Australian anthropologistNorman Tindaleand American anthropologistJoseph Birdsellsuggested there were 12 Negrito-like tribes of short-staturedAboriginalpeoples living on the coastal and rainforest areas aroundCairnson the lands of theMbabaram peopleandDjabugaypeople.[52][53]Birdsell found that the average adult male height of Aboriginal people in this region was significantly less than that of other Aboriginal Australian groups; however, it was still greater than the maximum height for classification as a pygmy people, so the termpygmymay be considered a misnomer.[54]He called this short-statured groupBarrineans,afterLake Barrine.

Aboriginal encampment in rainforest behind Cairns, 1890. This is the photograph (attributed to A. Atkinson) found by Norman Tindale in 1938, which sent him and Joseph Birdsell in search of the people depicted. He identified the location by the wild banana leaves on the roof of the hut.

Birdsell classified Aboriginal Australians into three major groups, mixed together to varying degrees: the Carpentarians, best represented inArnhem Land;the Murrayans, centred in southeastern Australia; and the Barrineans. He argued that people related to Oceanic Negritos were the first arrivals, and had been absorbed or replaced over time by later incoming peoples; the present-day Barrineans retained the greatest proportion of ancestry from this original Negrito group, "[b]ut this is not to say that the Barrineans are Negritos... the Negritic component is clearly subordinate, and... the preponderant element is Murrayian."[55]This trihybrid model is generally considered defunct today; craniometric,[56]genetic,[57]and linguistic[58]evidence does not support a separate origin of Barrinean or other Aboriginal groups, and physical differences between Aboriginal groups can be explained by adaptation to differing environments.[59]

In 2002, the purported existence of short-statured people in Queensland was brought into the public eye byKeith Windschuttleand Tim Gillin[clarification needed]in an article published by theright-wingQuadrant magazine(edited by Windschuttle himself). The authors argued that these people were evidence for a distinct Negrito population in support of Birdsell's theory, and claimed that "the fact that the Australian pygmies have been so thoroughly expunged from public memory suggests an indecent concurrence between scholarly and political interests", because evidence of descent from earlier or later waves of origin could lead to conflicting claims of priority by Aboriginal people and hence pose a threat to political co-operation among them.[60][61]This and other publications promoting the trihybrid model drew several responses, which went over the current scientific evidence against the theory, and suggested that attempts to revive the theory were motivated by an agenda of undermining Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander claims tonative title.[62][63]

Some Aboriginaloral historiesandoral traditionsfrom Queensland tell of "little red men". In 1957 a member of the Jinibara (theDalla people) tribe of SE Queensland, Gaiarbau, who was born in 1873 and had lived for many years traditionally with his tribe, said that he knew of the "existence of these" little people – the Dinderi ", also known as" Dimbilum "," Danagalalangur "and" Kandju ". Gaiarbau claims he saw members of a" tribe of small people... and said they were like dwarfs... and... not... any of them stood five feet [1.5m]. "[64]The Dinderi are also recorded in other stories, such as one concerning aplatypusmyth[65]and another,The Dinderi and Gujum - The Legend of the Stones of the Mary River.[66]

Susan McIntyre-Tamwoy, archaeologist and Adjunct Professor atJames Cook University,has written[67]of the northernCape YorkAboriginal people's belief of thebipotaim,which is when "the landscape as we know it today was created".Bipotaimwas formed "before people, although not perhaps before the short people or the red devils as these were also here before people".[68]She writes, "many ethnographers recorded stories of 'short people' or what they referred to as 'pygmy tribes'",such asLindsey Page Winterbotham.[69][64]She used information collected both through oral accounts (including those ofInjinoopeople), observation and archival research.[70]McIntyre-Tamwoy recounts abipotaimstory: "We are the short people [pygmies?]. Red devils occupy parts of the adjacent stony coast but our home is here in the sand dunes and forest. Before the Marakai ['white people'] came to our land the people were plentiful and they roamed the land. They understood the land and called out in the language of the country to seek permission, as they should...".[71]

According to Nathan Sentance, a librarian from the indigenous Wiradjuri nation employed by the Australian National Museum, there is no known archaeological or biological evidence such a people existed. Sentance claims it is a myth used to justify thecolonisation of Australiaas well as other countries by Europeans.[72]

Micronesia and Melanesia

Norman Gabel mentions that rumours exist of pygmy people in the interior mountains ofViti LevuinFiji,but explains he had no evidence of their existence as of 2012.[73] E. W. Giffordreiterated Gabel's statement in 2014 and claims that tribes of pygmies in the closest proximity to Fiji would most likely be found in Vanuatu.[74]

In 2008, the remains of at least 25 miniature humans, who lived between 1,000 and 3,000 years ago, were found on the islands ofPalauin Micronesia.[75][76]

During the 1900s, whenVanuatuwas known asNew Hebrides,sizable pygmy tribes were first reported throughout northeasternSanto.It is likely that they are not limited to this region of New Hebrides. Nonetheless, there is no anthropological evidence linking pygmies to other islands of Vanuatu.[74][77]

Archaic humans

The extinctarchaic humanspeciesHomo luzonensishas been classified as a pygmy group.[citation needed]The remains used to identifyHomo luzonensiswere discovered inLuzon,the Philippines,in 2007, and were designated as a species in 2019.Homo floresiensis,another archaic human from the island ofFloresinIndonesia,stood around 1.1 metres (3 feet 7 inches) tall. The pygmy phenotype evolved as a result ofisland syndromewhich, amongst other things, results in reduced body size in insular humans.[78]

See also

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