Jump to content

Pygmy peoples

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromPygmies)

This article is about modern ethnic groups. For other uses, seePygmy (disambiguation).

Pygmy peoples
Aka Pygmieson theCongo Basinin 2014
Regions with significant populations
Central Africa, Oceania, Southeast Asia

Inanthropology,pygmy peoplesareethnic groupswhose average height is unusually short. The termpygmyismis used to describe thephenotypeofendemicshort stature(as opposed to disproportionatedwarfismoccurring in isolated cases in a population) for populations in which adult men are on average less than 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) tall.[1]

Although the term is considered derogatory,[2][3]it is primarily associated with theAfrican Pygmies,thehunter-gatherersof theCongo Basin(comprising theBambenga,BambutiandBatwa).[4]

The terms "Asiatic Pygmies" and "Oceanic pygmies" have been used to describe theNegritopopulations ofSoutheast AsiaandAustralo-Melanesianpeoples of short stature.[5]TheTaron peopleofMyanmarare an exceptional case of a "pygmy" population ofEast Asianphenotype.

Etymology

Main article:Pygmy (Greek mythology)
A family from aBa Akapygmy village

The termpygmy,as used to refer to diminutive people, derives fromGreekπυγμαῖοςpygmaiosviaLatinPygmaei(sing.Pygmaeus), derived from πυγμή – meaning a short forearm cubit, or a measure of length corresponding to the distance from the wrist to the elbow or knuckles.[6](See alsoGreek πῆχυςpēkhys.) InGreek mythology,the word describes a tribe ofdwarfs,first described byHomer,the ancient Greek poet, and reputed to live in India and south of modern-day Ethiopia.[7]

In French-speaking Africa, they are sometimes referred to asautochthon[8](autochtone), referring to 'native' or 'indigenous'. Many prefer to be identified by their ethnicity, such as theAka(Mbenga),Baka,Mbuti,andTwa.[9]The termBayaka,the plural form of the Aka/Yaka, is sometimes used in theCentral African Republicto refer to all local pygmies. Likewise, theKongowordBambengais used inCongo.In parts of Africa, they are called Wochua or Achua.[10]

Two men with a woman holding a baby
African pygmies and a European visitor,c. 1921

Short stature

See also:Short statureandHuman height

Various theories have been proposed to explain the short stature of pygmies. Some studies suggest that it could be related to adaptation to lowultravioletlight levels inrainforests.[11][12]This might mean that relatively littlevitamin Dcan be made in human skin, thereby limitingcalciumuptake from the diet for bone growth and maintenance and leading to the evolution of the small skeletal size.[13]

Other explanations include lack of food in the rainforest environment, low calcium levels in the soil, the need to move through dense jungle, adaptation to heat and humidity, and as an association with rapid reproductive maturation under conditions of early mortality.[14]Other evidence points towards unusually low levels of expression of the genes encoding thegrowth hormone receptorandgrowth hormonecompared to the related tribal groups, associated with low serum levels ofinsulin-like growth factor 1and short stature.[15]

Africa

Further information:Classification of Pygmy languages

African Pygmieslive in several ethnic groups in Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo (ROC), Central African Republic, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Madagascar, and Zambia.[9]There are at least a dozen pygmy groups, sometimes unrelated to each other. The best known are theMbenga(Aka and Baka) of the westernCongo basin,who speakBantuandUbangian languages;theMbuti(Efeetc.) of theIturi Rainforest,who speak Bantu andCentral Sudanic languages,and theTwaof theAfrican Great Lakes,who speak BantuRundiandKiga.Most pygmy communities are partially hunter-gatherers, living partially but not exclusively on the wild products of their environment. They trade with neighbouring farmers to acquire cultivated foods and other material items; no group lives deep in the forest without access to agricultural products.[9]It is estimated that there are between 250,000 and 600,000 Pygmies living in theCongo rainforest.[16][17]However, although Pygmies are thought of as forest people, the groups called Twa may live in open swamp or desert.

Distribution of Pygmies and their languages according to Bahuchet (2006). Thesouthern Twaare not shown.

Origins

Expansion to Central Africa by the ancestors of African Pygmies most likely took place before 130,000 years ago, and certainly before 60,000 years ago.[18]A commonly held belief is that African Pygmies are the direct descendants ofLate Stone Agehunter-gatherer peoples of the central African rainforest, who were partially absorbed or displaced by later immigration of agricultural peoples, and adopted theirCentral Sudanic,Ubangian,and Bantu languages. This view has no archaeological support and ambiguous support from genetics and linguistics.[dubious–discuss][19][20][21]

Some 30% ofAka languageis not Bantu, and a similar percentage ofBaka languageis not Ubangian. Much of pygmy vocabulary is botanical, dealing with honey collecting, or is otherwise specialized for the forest and is shared between the two western pygmy groups. It has been proposed that this is the remnant of an independent western pygmy (Mbenga or "Baaka" ) language. However, this type of vocabulary is subject to widespread borrowing among the Pygmies and neighboring peoples, and the "Baaka" language was only reconstructed to the 15th century.[22]

African Pygmy populations are genetically diverse and extremely divergent from all other human populations, suggesting they have an ancient indigenous lineage. Theiruniparental markersrepresent the second-most ancient divergence, after those typically found inKhoisanpeoples.[23]Recent advances in genetics shed some light on the origins of the various Pygmy groups. Researchers found "an early divergence of the ancestors of Pygmy hunter–gatherers and farming populations 60,000 years ago, followed by a split of the Pygmies' ancestors into the Western and Eastern pygmy groups 20,000 years ago."[18]

New evidence suggests East and West African Pygmy children have different growth patterns. The difference between the two groups may indicate the Pygmies' short stature did not start with their common ancestor but instead evolved independently in adapting to similar environments, which adds support that some sets of genes related to height were advantageous in Eastern Pygmy populations, but not in Western Pygmy populations.[18][24][25]

However,Roger Blench[26]argues that the Pygmies are not descended from residual hunter-gatherer groups but rather are offshoots of larger neighboring ethnolinguistic groups that had adopted forest subsistence strategies. Blench notes the lack of clear linguistic and archaeological evidence for the antiquity of pygmy cultures and peoples and also notes that the genetic evidence can be problematic. Blench also notes that there is no evidence of the Pygmies have hunting technology distinctive from that of their neighbors, and argues that the short stature of pygmy populations can arise relatively quickly (in less than a few millennia) due to strong selection pressures.

Culture

Main article:Pygmy music
Bakapygmy dancers in theEast RegionofCameroon

The African Pygmies are particularly known for their usually vocal music, usually characterised by dense contrapuntal communal improvisation.Simha Aromsays that the level of polyphonic complexity of pygmy music was reached in Europe in the 14th century, yet Pygmy culture is unwritten and ancient.[27]Music permeates daily life and there are songs for entertainment as well as specific events and activities.

Violence against pygmies

Reported genocides

Further information:Rwandan genocideandEffacer le tableau

The pygmy population was a target of theInterahamweduring the 1994Rwandan genocide.Of the 30,000 Pygmies in Rwanda, an estimated 10,000 were killed and another 10,000 were displaced. They have been described as "forgotten victims" of the genocide.[28]

From the end of 2002 through January 2003 around 60,000 Pygmy civilians and 10,000 combatants were killed and oftencannibalizedin an extermination campaign known as "Effacer le tableau"during theSecond Congo War.[29][30]Human rights activists have made demands for the massacre to be recognized asgenocide.[31]

Forced removal
Main article:Fortress conservation

In a strategy described asfortress conservation,the conservation efforts of national parks, often financed by international organizations such as theWorld Wildlife Fund,can involve heavily armed park rangers removing native pygmies off the land.[32]However, some have argued that the most efficient conservation methods involve giving land rights to the land's indigenous inhabitants.[33]This pattern of eviction has been seen in national parks in theDemocratic Republic of the Congo,such asKahuzi-Biéga National Park,where pygmy inhabitants often cut the trees down to sell charcoal.[8]In theRepublic of the Congo,this is seen in the Messok Dja protected area.[34]InCameroon,this is seen in theLobéké National Park.[35]InUganda,some Batwa have been removed from land reclassified as national parks, such as theMgahinga Gorilla National Park,which is home to the endangeredMountain gorilla.[36]

Reported slavery

In the Republic of the Congo, where Pygmies make up 2% of the population, many Pygmies live asslavestoBantumasters. The nation is deeply stratified between these two major ethnic groups. The Pygmy slaves belong to their Bantu masters from birth in a relationship that the Bantus call a time-honored tradition. A 2007 news report stated that even though Pygmies are responsible for much of the hunting, fishing and manual labor in jungle villages, "Pygmies and Bantus alike say that Pygmies are often paid at the master's whim: in cigarettes, used clothing, or even nothing at all."[37]As a result of pressure fromUNICEFand human-rights activists, in 2009, a law that would grant special protections to the Pygmy people was awaiting a vote by the Congo parliament.[37][38]According to reports made in 2013, this law was never passed.[39]

In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, during theIturi conflict,Ugandan-backed rebel groups were accused by the UN of enslaving Mbutis to prospect for minerals and forage for forest food, with those returning empty handed being killed and eaten.[40]

Ethnic conflict

Main article:Batwa–Luba clashes

In NorthernKatanga Provincestarting in 2013, the Pygmy Batwa people, whom theLuba peopleoften exploit and allegedly enslave,[41]rose up into militias, such as the "Perci" militia, and attacked Luba villages.[42]A Luba militia known as "Elements" counterattacked. More than a thousand people were killed in the first eight months of 2014 alone[43]with the number of displaced people estimated to be 650,000 as of December 2017.[44][41]The weapons used in the conflict are often arrows and axes, rather than guns.[42]

Ota Bengaat theBronx Zooin 1906

Discrimination

See also:Human zoo

Historically, the pygmy have always been viewed as inferior by both colonial authorities and the village-dwelling Bantu tribes.[17]Pygmy children were sometimes captured during the period of theCongo Free State,which exported Pygmy children to zoos throughout Europe, including the world's fair in the United States in 1907.[17]Pygmies are often evicted from their land and given the lowest paying jobs. At a state level, Pygmies are sometimes not considered citizens and are refused identity cards, deeds to land, health care and proper schooling.The Lancetpublished a review showing that Pygmy populations often had worse access to health care than neighboring communities.[45]

Asia and Pacific

Southeast Asia

Atiwoman of the Philippines

NegritosinSoutheast Asia(including theBatakandAetaof the Philippines, theAndamaneseof theAndaman Islands,and theSemangof theMalay Peninsula) are sometimes called pygmies (especially in older literature). Negritos share some common physical features with African pygmy populations, including short stature anddark skin.The name "Negrito", from theSpanishadjective meaning "small black person", was given by early explorers. The explorers who named the Negritos assumed the Andamanese they encountered were from Africa. This belief was, however, discarded by anthropologists who noted that apart from dark skin, peppercorn hair, andsteatopygia,the Andamanese had little in common with any African population, including the African pygmies.[46]Their superficial resemblance to some Africans andMelanesiansis thought to be from living in a similar environment, or simply retentions of the initial human form.[47]

Their origin and the route of their migration to Asia is a matter of great speculation. They are genetically distant from Africans[47]and have been shown to have separated early from Asians,[48]suggesting that they are either surviving descendants of settlers from the earlyout-of-Africa migrationof theGreat Coastal Migrationof theProto-Australoids,or that they are descendants of one of the founder populations of modern humans.[49]

Frank Kingdon-Wardin the early 20th century reported a tribe of pygmyTibeto-Burmanspeakers known as theTaroninhabiting the remote region of Mt.Hkakabo Raziin Southeast Asia on the border of China (YunnanandTibet), Burma, and India.[50]A Burmese survey done in the 1960s reported a mean height of an adult male Taron at 1.43 metres (4 feet 8 inches) and that of females at 1.40 metres (4 feet 7 inches). These are the only known "pygmies" of clearlyEast Asiandescent.

The cause of their diminutive size is unknown, but diet andendogamousmarriage practices have been cited. The population of Taron pygmies has been steadily shrinking and is now down to only a few individuals.[51]In 2013, a link between the Taron and theDerung peopleinYunnan,China, was uncovered by Richard D. Fisher, which may indicate the presence of pygmy populations among the Derung tribe.[52]

Disputed pygmy presence in Australia

Australian anthropologistNorman Tindaleand American anthropologistJoseph Birdsellsuggested there were 12 Negrito-like tribes of short-staturedAboriginalpeoples living on the coastal and rainforest areas aroundCairnson the lands of theMbabaram peopleandDjabugaypeople.[53][54][55]Birdsell found that the average adult male height of Aboriginal people in this region was significantly less than that of other Aboriginal Australian groups; however, it was still greater than the maximum height for classification as a pygmy people, so the termpygmymay be considered a misnomer.[56]He called this short-statured groupBarrineans,afterLake Barrine.

Aboriginal encampment in rainforest behind Cairns, 1890. This is the photograph (attributed to A. Atkinson) found by Norman Tindale in 1938, which sent him and Joseph Birdsell in search of the people depicted. He identified the location by the wild banana leaves on the roof of the hut.

Birdsell classified Aboriginal Australians into three major groups, mixed together to varying degrees: the Carpentarians, best represented inArnhem Land;the Murrayans, centred in southeastern Australia; and the Barrineans. He argued that people related to Oceanic Negritos were the first arrivals, and had been absorbed or replaced over time by later incoming peoples; the present-day Barrineans retained the greatest proportion of ancestry from this original Negrito group, "[b]ut this is not to say that the Barrineans are Negritos... the Negritic component is clearly subordinate, and... the preponderant element is Murrayian."[57]This trihybrid model is generally considered defunct today; craniometric,[58]genetic,[59]and linguistic[60]evidence does not support a separate origin of Barrinean or other Aboriginal groups, and physical differences between Aboriginal groups can be explained by adaptation to differing environments.[61]

In 2002, the purported existence of short-statured people in Queensland was brought into the public eye byKeith Windschuttleand Tim Gillin[clarification needed]in an article published by theright-wingQuadrant magazine(edited by Windschuttle himself). The authors argued that these people were evidence for a distinct Negrito population in support of Birdsell's theory, and claimed that "the fact that the Australian pygmies have been so thoroughly expunged from public memory suggests an indecent concurrence between scholarly and political interests", because evidence of descent from earlier or later waves of origin could lead to conflicting claims of priority by Aboriginal people and hence pose a threat to political co-operation among them.[62][63]This and other publications promoting the trihybrid model drew several responses, which went over the current scientific evidence against the theory, and suggested that attempts to revive the theory were motivated by an agenda of undermining Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander claims tonative title.[64][65]

Some Aboriginaloral historiesandoral traditionsfrom Queensland tell of "little red men". In 1957 a member of the Jinibara (theDalla people) tribe of SE Queensland, Gaiarbau, who was born in 1873 and had lived for many years traditionally with his tribe, said that he knew of the "existence of these" little people – the Dinderi ", also known as" Dimbilum "," Danagalalangur "and" Kandju ". Gaiarbau claims he saw members of a" tribe of small people... and said they were like dwarfs... and... not... any of them stood five feet [1.5m]. "[66]The Dinderi are also recorded in other stories, such as one concerning aplatypusmyth[67]and another,The Dinderi and Gujum - The Legend of the Stones of the Mary River.[68]

Susan McIntyre-Tamwoy, archaeologist and adjunct professor atJames Cook University,has written[69]of the northernCape YorkAboriginal people's belief of thebipotaim,which is when "the landscape as we know it today was created".Bipotaimwas formed "before people, although not perhaps before the short people or the red devils as these were also here before people".[70]She writes, "many ethnographers recorded stories of 'short people' or what they referred to as 'pygmy tribes'",such asLindsey Page Winterbotham.[71][66]She used information collected both through oral accounts (including those ofInjinoopeople), observation and archival research.[72]McIntyre-Tamwoy recounts abipotaimstory: "We are the short people [pygmies?]. Red devils occupy parts of the adjacent stony coast but our home is here in the sand dunes and forest. Before the Marakai ['white people'] came to our land the people were plentiful and they roamed the land. They understood the land and called out in the language of the country to seek permission, as they should...".[73]

According to Nathan Sentance, a librarian from the indigenous Wiradjuri nation employed by the Australian National Museum, there is no known archaeological or biological evidence such a people existed. Sentance claims it is a myth used to justify thecolonisation of Australiaas well as other countries by Europeans.[74]

Micronesia and Melanesia

Norman Gabel mentions that rumours exist of pygmy people in the interior mountains ofViti LevuinFiji,but explains he had no evidence of their existence as of 2012.[75] E. W. Giffordreiterated Gabel's statement in 2014 and claims that tribes of pygmies in the closest proximity to Fiji would most likely be found in Vanuatu.[76]

In 2008, the remains of at least 25 miniature humans, who lived between 1,000 and 3,000 years ago, were found on the islands ofPalauin Micronesia.[77][78]

During the 1900s, whenVanuatuwas known asNew Hebrides,sizable pygmy tribes were first reported throughout northeasternSanto.It is likely that they are not limited to this region of New Hebrides. Nonetheless, there is no anthropological evidence linking pygmies to other islands of Vanuatu.[76][79]

Archaic humans

The extinctarchaic humanspeciesHomo luzonensishas been classified as a pygmy group.[citation needed]The remains used to identifyHomo luzonensiswere discovered inLuzon,the Philippines,in 2007, and were designated as a species in 2019.Homo floresiensis,another archaic human from the island ofFloresinIndonesia,stood around 1.1 metres (3 feet 7 inches) tall. The pygmy phenotype evolved as a result ofisland syndromewhich, amongst other things, results in reduced body size in insular humans.[80]

See also

References

  1. ^"Pygmy".Encyclopædia Britannica Online.2007. Archived fromthe originalon 28 March 2007.Retrieved11 October2011.
  2. ^Hewlett, Barry S. (1996). "Cultural diversity among African pygmies". In Kent, Susan (ed.).Cultural Diversity Among Twentieth-Century Foragers.Cambridge University Press. Archived fromthe originalon 9 June 2010.
  3. ^VICE (21 May 2024).The Congolese Tribes Selling Weed to Survive | WEEDIQUETTE.Retrieved23 May2024– via YouTube.
  4. ^"African Pygmies".7 February 2016. Archived fromthe originalon 7 February 2016.Retrieved18 November2019.
  5. ^Quatrefages de Bréau, Armand de(1895).The Pygmies.Retrieved30 June2022.
  6. ^Leslie, Robert Murray (1911)."Pygmy".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 22 (11th ed.). pp. 677–679.
  7. ^"pygmy",Online Etymology Dictionary,archived fromthe originalon 29 October 2013
  8. ^abBeaumont, Peter (22 July 2019)."Gorillas, charcoal and the fight for survival in Congo's rainforest".The Guardian.Defenders: Saving Congo's Parks. Photos by Kate Holt.Retrieved1 September2019– via theguardian.org.
  9. ^abcDembner, S. A. (ed.)."Forest peoples in the central African rain forest: focus on the pygmies".FAO Corporate Document Repository.Food and Agriculture OrganizationForestry Department. Archived fromthe originalon 25 October 2016.
  10. ^Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)."Wochua".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 767.
  11. ^Becker, Noémie S.A.; Verdu, Paul; Froment, Alain; Le Bomin, Sylvie; Pagezy, Hélène; Bahuchet, Serge; Heyer, Evelyne (2011)."Indirect evidence for the genetic determination of short stature in African Pygmies"(PDF).American Journal of Physical Anthropology.145(3): 390–401.doi:10.1002/ajpa.21512.hdl:2027.42/86961.PMID21541921.
  12. ^O'Dea, Julian (21 December 2009)."Ultraviolet light levels in the rainforest".Archived fromthe originalon 4 March 2016.
  13. ^O'Dea, JD (January 1994). "Possible contribution of low ultraviolet light under the rainforest canopy to the small stature of Pygmies and Negritos".Homo: Journal of Comparative Human Biology.44(3): 284–7.
  14. ^Yong, Ed(19 December 2007)."Short lives, short size – why are pygmies small?".Not Exactly Rocket Science.Archived fromthe originalon 24 March 2012.
  15. ^Bozzola, M; Travaglino, P; Marziliano, N; Meazza, C; Pagani, S; Grasso, M; Tauber, M; Diegoli, M; Pilotto, A; Disabella, E; Tarantino, P; Brega, A; Arbustini, E (November 2009). "The shortness of Pygmies is associated with severe under-expression of the growth hormone receptor".Mol Genet Metab.98(3): 310–3.doi:10.1016/j.ymgme.2009.05.009.PMID19541519. Dávila N, Shea BT, Omoto K, Mercado M, Misawa S, Baumann G (March 2002). "Growth hormone binding protein, insulin-like growth factor-I and short stature in two pygmy populations from the Philippines".J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab.15(3): 269–276.doi:10.1515/JPEM.2002.15.3.269.PMID11924928.S2CID30556010.
  16. ^Vidal, John (4 October 2007)."World Bank accused of razing Congo forests".The Guardian.Archived fromthe originalon 13 May 2016.
  17. ^abcSheshadri, Raja James (December 2005)."Pygmies in the Congo Basin and Conflict".ICE Case Studies.American University.Archived fromthe originalon 4 March 2016.Retrieved24 March2010.
  18. ^abcPatin, E.; Laval, G.; Barreiro, L. B.; Salas, A.; Semino, O.; Santachiara-Benerecetti, S.; Kidd, K. K.; Kidd, J. R.; et al. (2009). Di Rienzo, Anna (ed.)."Inferring the Demographic History of African Farmers and Pygmy Hunter–Gatherers Using a Multilocus Resequencing Data Set".PLOS Genetics.5(4): e1000448.doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000448.PMC2661362.PMID19360089.
  19. ^Blench, Roger M.; Dendo, Mallam (27 June 2004)."Genetics and linguistics in sub-Saharan Africa"(PDF).Cambridge-Bergen: SAFA 2004. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 21 July 2011 – via Roger Blench Website.
  20. ^Klieman, Kairn A. (2003).The Pygmies Were Our Compass: Bantu and BaTwa in the History of West Central Africa, Early Times to c. 1900.Heinemann.ISBN978-0-325-07105-3.
  21. ^Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza (1986).African pygmies.Academic Press.ISBN978-0-12-164480-2.Retrieved11 October2011.
  22. ^Serge Bahuchet, 1993,History of the inhabitants of the central African rain forest: perspectives from comparative linguistics.In C.M. Hladik, ed.,Tropical forests, people, and food: Biocultural interactions and applications to development.Paris: Unesco/Parthenon.ISBN1-85070-380-9
  23. ^Tishkoff, SA; et al. (2009)."The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans".Science.324(5930): 1035–44.Bibcode:2009Sci...324.1035T.doi:10.1126/science.1172257.PMC2947357.PMID19407144.Also see
  24. ^Becker, Rachel A. (28 July 2015)."We May Have Been Wrong About How African Pygmies Grow".National Geographic News.Archived fromthe originalon 29 July 2015.Retrieved28 July2015.
  25. ^Rozzi, Fernando V. Ramirez; Koudou, Yves; Froment, Alain; Le Bouc, Yves; Botton, Jérémie (28 July 2015)."Growth pattern from birth to adulthood in African pygmies of known age".Nature Communications.6:7672.Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.7672R.doi:10.1038/ncomms8672.PMC4525207.PMID26218408.
  26. ^Blench, Roger(1999). "Are the African Pygmies an ethnographic fiction". In Biesbrouck, Karen; Elders, Stefan; Rossel, Gerda (eds.).Central African hunter-gatherers in a multi-disciplinary perspective: Challenging elusiveness(PDF).CNWS Leiden University. pp. 41–60. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 20 April 2015 – via Roger Blench Website.
  27. ^Aimard, Pierre-Laurent; Ligeti, György; Reich, Steve; Arom, Simha; Schomann, Stefan (2003).African Rhythms(Liner notes). Music byAkaPygmies, performed by Aka Pygmies,György LigetiandSteve Reich,performed byPierre-Laurent Aimard.Teldec Classics. 8573 86584-2.
  28. ^"In Rwanda, an estimated 10,000 of the 30,000-strong pygmy community was slaughtered during the Rwandan genocide, making them the" forgotten victims "of the Rwandan genocide."Raja Seshadri (7 November 2005)."Pygmies in the Congo Basin and Conflict".Case Study 163.The Inventory of Conflict & Environment,American University.Archived fromthe originalon 4 March 2016.Retrieved21 July2012.
  29. ^"Between October 2002 and January 2003, two the rebel groups, the MLC and RCD-N in the East of the Congo launched a premeditated, systematic genocide against the local tribes and Pygmies nicknamed operation"Effacer le tableau"(" erase the board "). During their offensive against the civilian population of the Ituri region, the rebel groups left more than 60,000 dead and over 100,000 displaced. The rebels even engaged in slavery and cannibalism. Human Rights Reports state that this was due to the fact that rebel groups, often far away from their bases of supply and desperate for food, enslaved the Pygmies on captured farms to grow provisions for their militias or when times get really tough simply slaughter them like animals and devour their flesh which some believe gives them magical powers.11. Fatality Level of Dispute (military and civilian fatalities): 70,000 estimated" see:Raja Seshadri (7 November 2005)."Pygmies in the Congo Basin and Conflict".Case Study 163.The Inventory of Conflict & Environment,American University.Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.Retrieved21 July2012.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  30. ^Basildon Peta(9 January 2003)."Rebels 'eating Pygmies' as mass slaughter continues in Congo despite peace agreement".The Independent.Archivedfrom the original on 26 December 2010.
  31. ^"DR Congo Pygmies appeal to UN".BBC News.23 May 2003.Archivedfrom the original on 13 December 2010.
  32. ^"Congo: The tribe under threat".Unreported World.2 June 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 12 December 2021.Retrieved1 September2019.
  33. ^"India should follow China to find a way out of the woods on saving forest people".The Guardian.22 July 2016.Retrieved1 September2019.
  34. ^"'Large-scale human rights violations' taint Congo national park project ".The Guardian.26 November 2020.Retrieved27 May2022.
  35. ^Warren, Tom; Baker, Katie (4 March 2019)."WWF Funds Guards Who Have Tortured And Killed People".BuzzFeed News.
  36. ^"Uganda's Batwa tribe, considered conservation refugees, see little government support".PBS.21 October 2021.Retrieved6 September2024.
  37. ^abThomas, Katie (12 March 2007)."Congo's Pygmies live as slaves".The News & Observer.Archived fromthe originalon 28 February 2009.
  38. ^Nicholas D. Kristof (16 June 1997)."As the World Intrudes, Pygmies Feel Endangered".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 1 July 2017.
  39. ^"Pygmies: Racism".Survival International.Archived fromthe originalon 23 April 2015.
  40. ^Astill, James (8 January 2003)."Congo rebels are eating pygmies, UN says".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 29 March 2017.
  41. ^ab"DR Congo: Ethnic Militias Attack Civilians in Katanga".Human Rights Watch. 11 August 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 8 March 2017.Retrieved7 March2017.
  42. ^ab"In Congo, Wars Are Small and Chaos Is Endless".The New York Times.30 April 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 6 May 2017.Retrieved7 March2017.
  43. ^"Displaced Congolese civilians sent back to a widening war".irinnews. 11 July 2017.Retrieved18 July2017.
  44. ^"Stricken by communal violence and malnutrition in Tanganyika, Democratic Republic of the Congo".International Committee of the Red Cross.29 December 2017.Retrieved19 March2018.
  45. ^Nyang'ori Ohenjo; Ruth Willis; Dorothy Jackson; Clive Nettleton; Kenneth Good; Benon Mugarura (2006). "Health of Indigenous people in Africa".The Lancet.367(9526): 1937–1946.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68849-1.PMID16765763.S2CID7976349.
  46. ^Liu, James J.Y. (1967).The Chinese Knight Errant.London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.ISBN0-226-48688-5.
  47. ^abThangaraj, Kumarasamy; et al. (21 January 2003)."Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population".Current Biology.13(2): 86–93(8).Bibcode:2003CBio...13...86T.doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(02)01336-2.PMID12546781.S2CID12155496.
  48. ^Yew, Chee-Wei; Lu, Dongsheng; Deng, Lian; Wong, Lai-Ping; Ong, Rick Twee-Hee; Lu, Yan; Wang, Xiaoji; Yunus, Yushimah; Aghakhanian, Farhang; Mokhtar, Siti Shuhada; Hoque, Mohammad Zahirul (2018)."Genomic structure of the native inhabitants of Peninsular Malaysia and North Borneo suggests complex human population history in Southeast Asia".Human Genetics.137(2): 161–173.doi:10.1007/s00439-018-1869-0.ISSN1432-1203.PMID29383489.S2CID253969988.The analysis of time of divergence suggested that ancestors of Negrito were the earliest settlers in the Malay Peninsula, whom first separated from the Papuans ~ 50-33 thousand years ago (kya), followed by East Asian (~ 40-15 kya)...
  49. ^Kashyap, VK; Sitalaximi, T; Sarkar, BN; Trivedi, R (2003)."Molecular relatedness of the aboriginal groups of Andaman and Nicobar Islands with similar ethnic populations"(PDF).The International Journal of Human Genetics.3:5–11.doi:10.1080/09723757.2003.11885820.S2CID31992842.Archived(PDF)from the original on 27 March 2009.
  50. ^Alan Rabinowitz 1990s,[clarification needed]P. Christiaan Klieger 2003[clarification needed]
  51. ^Klieger, P. Christiaan (Fall 2003)."Along the Salt Road".California Wild.Photos by Dong Lin.California Academy of Sciences.Archivedfrom the original on 26 January 2021.Retrieved1 July2022. Klieger, P. Christiaan (2005)."A Journey Through Northern Burma: Along the Salt Road".Woodland Travels.Photos by Dong Lin. Botahtaung Township, Myanmar. Archived fromthe originalon 10 January 2009. Klieger, Christiaan."Myanmar Anthropology – High Altitude Anthropology".California Academy of SciencesScience NOW: Where in the World.Photos by Dong Lin. Archived fromthe originalon 2 December 2008.Retrieved11 October2011. LaPolla, Randy J.;Poa, Dory; GROS, Stéphane; Klieger, Christiaan."Photos of Rawang People in the Hkakabo Razi Area".Rawang-Dulong-Anong Language and Culture.Photos by P. Christiaan Klieger and Dong Lin.Linguist List.Archived fromthe originalon 12 February 2009.Retrieved11 October2011.
  52. ^Fisher, Richard D."The search for 'Dawi': the last of the T'rung pygmies of Burma and his return visit to his ancestral homeland in Tibet/Yunnan borderlands".Grand Canyons of the Earth.Archivedfrom the original on 8 September 2013.Retrieved12 August2013.
  53. ^Tindale, Norman B.(16 December 2003) [Reproduced from N.B. Tindale'sAboriginal Tribes of Australia(1974)]."Tjapukai (QLD)".Tindale's Catalogue of Australian Aboriginal Tribes.South Australian Museum.Archived fromthe originalon 26 July 2008.
  54. ^Norman B. Tindale(1974). "Tjapukai (QLD)".Aboriginal Tribes of Australia: Their Terrain, Environmental Controls, Distribution, Limits, and Proper Names.Canberra:ANU Press.ISBN0-7081-0741-9.LCCN75516991.OCLC3052288.OL4795942M.WikidataQ128257949.
  55. ^Groves, Colin(June 2002)."Australia for the Australians".Australian Humanities Review(26).Archivedfrom the original on 15 January 2009.Retrieved1 July2022.
  56. ^Hiscock, Peter(2005). "The extinction of rigour: a comment on 'The extinction of the Australian Pygmies' by Keith Windschuttle and Tim Gillin".Aboriginal History.29:142–148.JSTOR24046693.
  57. ^Birdsell, Joseph(1967). "Preliminary Data on the Trihybrid Origin of the Australian Aborigines".Archaeology & Physical Anthropology in Oceania.2(2).
  58. ^Larnach, Neil William George; Macintosh, S. L. (1970).The Craniology of the Aborigines of Queensland.University of Sydney.ISBN0855570016.
  59. ^McAllister, Peter; Nagle, Nano; Mitchell, Robert John; et al. (1 June 2013). "The Australian Barrineans and Their Relationship to Southeast Asian Negritos: An Investigation using Mitochondrial Genomics".Human Biology.85(1): 485–94.doi:10.3378/027.085.0322.hdl:10072/57320.PMID24297238.S2CID33171899.
  60. ^Dixon, R. M. W. (1980).The Languages of Australia.Cambridge University Press.p. 262.ISBN9780521294508.
  61. ^Gilligan, Ian; Bulbeck, David (2007). "Environment and morphology in Australian Aborigines: A re-analysis of the Birdsell database".American Journal of Physical Anthropology.134(1): 75–91.doi:10.1002/ajpa.20640.PMID17568440.
  62. ^McNiven, Ian J.; Russell, Lynette (2005).Appropriated Pasts: Indigenous Peoples and the Colonial Culture of Archaeology(2nd ed.). Lanham, Md.: AltaMira Press. pp. 90–92.ISBN0-7591-0906-0.
  63. ^Windschuttle, Keith (1 June 2002)."The extinction of the Australian pygmies".Quadrant magazine.Quadrant Magazine Ltd.Retrieved31 January2019.
  64. ^Westaway, Michael (13 March 2015)."Who we should recognise as First Australians in the constitution".The Conversation.The Conversation Media Group.Retrieved31 January2019.
  65. ^Ross, Anne (June 2010). "Constant Resurrection: The Trihybrid Model and the Politicisation of Australian Archaeology".Australian Archaeology.70(1): 55–67.doi:10.1080/03122417.2010.11681911.JSTOR27821565.S2CID141126928.
  66. ^abWinterbotham, Lindsay P. (1957)."Gaiarbau's story of the Jinibara tribe of South East Queensland and its neighbours".
  67. ^John Gladstone Steele (1983).Aboriginal Pathways: in Southeast Queensland and the Richmond River.Univ. of Queensland Press.ISBN9780702257421.
  68. ^"Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Service".Queensland Health.30 October 2017.Retrieved16 June2020.Audio
  69. ^McIntyre-Tamwoy, Susan (2000).Red devils and white men(Thesis). PhD thesis, James Cook University.doi:10.25903/db9w-9r36.
  70. ^McIntyre-Tamwoy, Susan (2000).Red devils and white men(Thesis). PhD thesis, James Cook University. p. 187.doi:10.25903/db9w-9r36.
  71. ^McIntyre-Tamwoy, Susan (2000).Red devils and white men(Thesis). PhD thesis, James Cook University. p. 87.doi:10.25903/db9w-9r36.
  72. ^McIntyre-Tamwoy, Susan (2000).Red devils and white men(Thesis). PhD thesis, James Cook University. pp. 9–10.doi:10.25903/db9w-9r36.
  73. ^McIntyre-Tamwoy, Susan (2000).Red devils and white men(Thesis). PhD thesis, James Cook University. p. 183.doi:10.25903/db9w-9r36.
  74. ^"Dismantling the Australian pygmy people myth".The Australian Museum.Retrieved16 June2020.
  75. ^Norman E. Gabel.A Racial Study of the Fi gian s.
  76. ^abE. W. Gifford."Anthropological problems in Fiji".Retrieved3 May2014.
  77. ^Ian Sample (12 March 2008)."Pygmy human remains found on rock islands".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 28 December 2016.
  78. ^Lee R. Berger;Steven E. Churchill; Bonita De Klerk; Rhonda L. Quinn (March 2008)."Small-Bodied Humans from Palau, Micronesia".PLoS ONE.3(3): e1780.Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.1780B.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001780.PMC2268239.PMID18347737.
  79. ^Felix Speiser (January 1996).Ethnology of Vanuatu: An Early Twentieth Century Study.University of Hawaii Press. p. 400.ISBN9780824818746.
  80. ^abBaeckens, Simon; Van Damme, Raoul (20 April 2020)."The island syndrome".Current Biology.30(8): R329–R339.Bibcode:2020CBio...30.R338B.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.029.PMID32315628.
Wikimedia Commons has media related toAfrican Pygmies.
Wikiquote has quotations related toPygmy peoples.
Scholiahas atopicprofile forPygmy peoples.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pygmy_peoples&oldid=1249934874"