Quebec

This article is about the Canadian province. For the province's capital city, seeQuebec City.For the historical province, seeProvince of Quebec (1763–1791).For other uses, seeQuebec (disambiguation).

Quebec Québec(French)
Province
Flag Coat of arms
Motto(s): Je me souviens(French) ( "I remember" )
BC AB SK MB ON QC NB PE NS NL YT NT NU
Coordinates:52°N72°W
Country	Canada
Before confederation	Canada East
Confederation	July 1, 1867 (1st, withNew Brunswick,Nova Scotia,Ontario)
Capital	Quebec City
Largest city	Montreal
Largest metro	Greater Montreal
Government
• Type	Parliamentaryconstitutional monarchy
•Lieutenant Governor	Manon Jeannotte
• Premier	François Legault
Legislature	National Assembly of Quebec
Federal representation	Parliament of Canada
House seats	78 of 338 (23.1%)
Senate seats	24 of 105(22.9%)
Area
• Total	1,700,000 km2(700,000 sq mi)
• Land	1,365,128 km2(527,079 sq mi)
• Water	176,928 km2(68,312 sq mi) 10.4%
• Rank	2nd
	17% of Canada
Population (2021)
• Total	8,501,833
• Estimate (Q2 2024)	9,030,684
• Rank	2nd
• Density	6.23/km2(16.1/sq mi)
Demonym(s)	in English: Quebecer, Quebecker, Québécois in French:Québécois(m),Québécoise (f)
Official languages	French
GDP
• Rank	2nd
• Total (2022)	C$552.737 billion
• Per capita	C$63,651 (9th)
HDI
• HDI (2019)	0.916—Very high(9th)
Time zone	UTC−05:00(Eastern Time Zonefor most of the province)
• Summer (DST)	UTC−04:00
Canadian postal abbr.	QC
Rankings include allprovinces and territories

Quebec(French:Québec[kebɛk])is one of the thirteenprovinces and territories of Canada.It is thelargest province by areaand the second-largest bypopulation.

With an area of 1.7 million square km and more than 12,000 km of borders,inNorth America,Quebec is located inCentral Canada.The province shares land borders with the provinces ofOntarioto the west,Newfoundland and Labradorto the northeast,New Brunswickto the southeast and a coastal border with the territory ofNunavut.It is bathed up north byJames Bay,Hudson Bay,Hudson Strait,Ungava Bay,ArcticandAtlanticOceans, and in the south, it shares a border with theUnited States.

The majority of the population of Quebec lives in theSt. Lawrence Rivervalley,between its most populous city,Montreal,Trois-Rivièresand the provincial capital,Quebec.

Iris versicolor-floral emblem of Quebec

Between 1534 and 1763, what is now Quebec was theFrench colonyofCanadaand was the most developed colony inNew France.Following theSeven Years' War,Canadabecame aBritish colony,first as theProvince of Quebec(1763–1791), thenLower Canada(1791–1841), and lastly part of theProvince of Canada(1841–1867) as a result of theLower Canada Rebellion.It wasconfederatedwith Ontario,Nova Scotia,and New Brunswick in 1867.Until the early 1960s,theCatholic Churchplayed a large role in the social and cultural institutions in Quebec. However, theQuiet Revolutionof the 1960s to 1980s increased the role of the Government of Quebec inl'État québécois(the public authority of Quebec).

TheGovernment of Quebecfunctions within the context of aWestminster systemand is both aliberal democracyand aconstitutional monarchy.ThePremier of Quebecacts ashead of government.Independence debateshave played a large role inQuebec politics.Quebec society'scohesionandspecificityis based on three of its uniquestatutorydocuments: theQuebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms,theCharter of the French Language,and theCivil Code of Quebec.Furthermore, unlike elsewhere in Canada,law in Quebecis mixed:private lawis exercised under acivil-lawsystem, whilepublic lawis exercised under acommon-lawsystem.

Quebec'sofficial languageis French;Québécois Frenchis the regionalvariety.Quebec is the onlyFrancophone-majority province. Theeconomy of Quebecis mainly supported by its large service sector and varied industrial sector. For exports, it leans on the key industries ofaeronautics,where it is the 6th largest worldwide seller,hydroelectricity,mining,pharmaceuticals,aluminum, wood, and paper. Quebec is well known for producingmaple syrup,forits comedy,and for makinghockeyone of the mostpopular sports in Canada.It is also renowned for itsculture;the province producesliterature,music,films,TV shows,festivals,and more.

Etymology

The nameQuébeccomes from anAlgonquinword meaning 'narrow passage' or 'strait'.The name originally referred to the area aroundQuebec Citywhere theSaint Lawrence Rivernarrows to a cliff-lined gap. Early variations in the spelling includedQuébecqandKébec.French explorerSamuel de Champlainchose the nameQuébecin 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as theadministrative seatforNew France.

History

Main article:History of Quebec

For a chronological guide, seeTimeline of Quebec history.

Indigenous peoples and European expeditions (pre-1608)

Main articles:Peopling of the Americas,Indigenous peoples in Quebec,andExploration of North America

A depiction ofJacques CartierbyThéophile Hamel,1844

ThePaleo-Indians,theorized to have migrated from Asia to America between 20,000 and 14,000 years ago, were the first people to establish themselves on the lands of Quebec, arriving after theLaurentide Ice Sheetmelted roughly 11,000 years ago.From them, manyethnocultural groupsemerged. By the European explorations of the 1500s, there were elevenIndigenous peoples:theInuitand tenFirst Nations– theAbenakis,Algonquins(or Anichinabés),Atikamekw,Cree,Huron-Wyandot,Maliseet,Miꞌkmaqs,Iroquois,InnuandNaskapis.Algonquians organized into seven political entities and lived nomadic lives based on hunting, gathering, and fishing.Inuit fished and hunted whales and seals along the coasts of Hudson and Ungava Bays.

In the 15th century, theByzantine Empire fell,prompting Western Europeans to search for newsea routesto theFar East.Around 1522–23,Giovanni da VerrazzanopersuadedKing Francis I of Franceto commission an expedition to find a western route toCathay(China) via aNorthwest Passage.Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established the nameNew Francefor northeast North America.In his first expedition ordered from the Kingdom of France,Jacques Cartierbecame the first European explorer to discover and map Quebec when he landed inGaspéon July 24, 1534.In the second expedition, in 1535, Cartier explored the lands ofStadaconaand named the village and its surrounding territoriesCanada(fromkanata,'village' inIroquois). Cartier returned to France with about 10St. Lawrence Iroquoians,including ChiefDonnacona.In 1540, Donnacona told the legend of theKingdom of Saguenayto the King, inspiring him to order a third expedition, this time led byJean-François de La Rocque de Roberval;it was unsuccessful in its goal of finding the kingdom.

After these expeditions, France mostly abandoned North America for 50 years because of its financial crisis; France was involved in theItalian Warsand religious wars.Around 1580, the rise of thefur tradereignited French interest; New France became acolonial trading post.In 1603,Samuel de Champlaintravelled to the Saint Lawrence River and, on Pointe Saint-Mathieu, established adefence pactwith the Innu, Maliseet and Micmacs, that would be "a decisive factor in the maintenance of a French colonial enterprise in America despite an enormous numerical disadvantage vis-à-vis the British".Thus also began French military support to theAlgonquianand Huron peoples against Iroquois attacks; these became known as theIroquois Warsand lasted from the early 1600s to the early 1700s.

New France (1608–1763)

Main articles:Canada (New France)andNew France

Three Huron-Wyandot chiefs fromWendake.New France had largely peaceful relations with the Indigenous people, such as their allies the Huron. After thedefeat of the Huronby their mutual enemy, theIroquois,many fled from Ontario to Quebec.

In 1608, Samuel de Champlainreturned to the region as head of an exploration party. On July 3, 1608, with the support of KingHenry IV,he founded theHabitation de Québec(now Quebec City) and made it the capital of New France and its regions.The settlement was built as a permanent fur trading outpost, where First Nations traded furs for French goods, such as metal objects, guns, alcohol, and clothing.Missionary groups arrived in New France after the founding of Quebec City.Coureurs des boisandCatholic missionariesused rivercanoesto explore the interior and establish fur trading forts.

TheCompagnie des Cent-Associés,which had been granted a royal mandate to manage New France in 1627, introduced theCustom of Parisand theseigneurial system,and forbade settlement by anyone other than Catholics.In 1629,Quebec City surrendered,without battle, to Englishprivateersduring theAnglo-French War;in 1632, the English king agreed to return it with theTreaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.Trois-Rivièreswas founded at de Champlain's request in 1634.Paul de Chomedey de MaisonneuvefoundedVille-Marie(now Montreal) in 1642.

In 1663, the Company of New France ceded Canada toKing Louis XIV,who made New France into a royal province of France.New France was now atrue colonyadministered by theSovereign Council of New Francefrom Quebec City. Agovernor-general,governed Canada and its administrative dependencies: Acadia,Louisianaand Plaisance.The French settlers were mostly farmers and known as "Canadiens"or"Habitants".Though there was little immigration,the colony grew because of the Habitants' high birth rates.In 1665, theCarignan-Salières regimentdeveloped the string of fortifications known as the "Valley of Forts" to protect against Iroquois invasions and brought with them 1,200 new men.To redress the gender imbalance and boost population growth, King Louis XIV sponsored the passage of approximately 800 young French women (King's Daughters) to the colony.In 1666, intendantJean Talonorganized the first census and counted 3,215 Habitants. Talon enacted policies to diversify agriculture and encourage births, which, in 1672, had increased the population to 6,700.

New France's territory grew to extend fromHudson Bayto theGulf of Mexico,and would encompass theGreat Lakes.In the early 1700s,Governor Callièresconcluded theGreat Peace of Montreal,which not only confirmed the alliance between the Algonquian and New France, but definitively ended the Iroquois Wars.From 1688 onwards, the fierce competition between the French and British to control North America's interior and monopolize fur trade pitted New France and its Indigenous allies against the Iroquois and English in four successive wars called theFrench and Indian Warsby Americans, and the Intercolonial Wars in Quebec.The first three wereKing William's War(1688–1697),Queen Anne's War(1702–1713), andKing George's War(1744–1748). In 1713, following thePeace of Utrecht,theDuke of Orléansceded Acadia andPlaisance Bayto Great Britain, but retainedÎle Saint-Jean,andÎle-Royalewhere theFortress of Louisbourgwas subsequently erected. These losses were significant since Plaisance Bay was the primary communication route between New France and France, and Acadia contained 5,000Acadians.In thesiege of Louisbourg (1745),the British were victorious, but returned the city to France after war concessions.

Montcalm leading his troops into battle. Watercolour byCharles William Jefferys.

The last of the four French and Indian Wars was theSeven Years' War( "The War of theConquest"in Quebec) and lasted from 1754 to 1763.In 1754, tensions escalated for control of theOhio Valley,as authorities in New France became more aggressive in efforts to expel British traders and colonists.In 1754,George Washingtonlaunched a surprise attack on a group of sleeping Canadien soldiers, known as theBattle of Jumonville Glen,the first battle of the war. In 1755, GovernorCharles Lawrenceand OfficerRobert Moncktonordered the forcefulexplusion of the Acadians.In 1758, on Île-Royale, British General James Wolfebesieged and capturedthe Fortress of Louisbourg.This allowed him to control access to theGulf of St. Lawrencethrough theCabot Strait.In 1759, he besieged Quebec for three months fromÎle d'Orléans.Then, Wolfe stormed Quebec and fought against Montcalm for control of the city in theBattle of the Plains of Abraham.After a British victory, theking's lieutenantandLord of Ramezayconcluded theArticles of Capitulation of Quebec.During the spring of 1760, theChevalier de Lévisbesieged Quebec City and forced the British to entrench themselves during theBattle of Sainte-Foy.However, loss of French vessels sent to resupply New France after the fall of Quebec City during theBattle of Restigouchemarked the end of France's efforts to retake the colony.Governor Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnialsigned theArticles of Capitulation of Montrealon September 8, 1760.

While awaiting the results of the Seven Years' War in Europe, New France was put under aBritish military regimeled by GovernorJames Murray.In 1762, CommanderJeffery Amherstended the French presence in Newfoundland at theBattle of Signal Hill.France secretly ceded the western part of Louisiana and theMississippi River Deltato Spain via theTreaty of Fontainebleau.On February 10, 1763, theTreaty of Parisconcluded the war. France ceded its North American possessions to Great Britain.Thus, France had put an end to New France and abandoned the remaining 60,000 Canadiens, who sided with the Catholicclergyin refusing to take an oath to theBritish Crown.The rupture from France would provoke a transformation within thedescendants of the Canadiensthat would eventually result in the birth of a newnation.

British North America (1763–1867)

Main articles:Province of Quebec (1763–1791),Lower Canada,andCanada East

TheProvince of Quebecin 1774

After the British acquired Canada in 1763, the British government established a constitution for the newly acquired territory, under theRoyal Proclamation.The Canadiens were subordinated to the government of theBritish Empireand circumscribed to a region of theSt. Lawrence ValleyandAnticosti Islandcalled theProvince of Quebec.With unrest growing in their southern colonies, the British were worried that the Canadiens might support what would become theAmerican Revolution.To secure allegiance to the British crown, GovernorJames Murrayand later GovernorGuy Carletonpromoted the need for accommodations, resulting in the enactment of theQuebec Actof 1774. This act allowed Canadiens to regain theircivil customs,return to the seigneural system, regain certain rights including use of French, and reappropriate their old territories: Labrador, the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley,Illinois Countryand theIndian Territory.

As early as 1774, theContinental Congressof the separatistThirteen Coloniesattempted to rally the Canadiens to its cause. However,its military troopsfailed to defeat the British counteroffensive during itsInvasion of Quebecin 1775. Most Canadiens remained neutral, though some regiments allied themselves with the Americans in theSaratoga campaignof 1777. When the British recognized the independence of the rebel colonies at the signing of theTreaty of Parisof 1783, it conceded Illinois and the Ohio Valley to the newly formed United States and denoted the 45th parallel as its border, drastically reducing Quebec's size.

SomeUnited Empire Loyalistsfrom the US migrated to Quebec and populated various regions.Dissatisfied with the legal rights under the French seigneurial régime which applied in Quebec, and wanting to use the British legal system to which they were accustomed, the Loyalists protested to British authorities until theConstitutional Actof 1791 was enacted, dividing the Province of Quebec into two distinct colonies starting from theOttawa River:Upper Canadato the west (predominantly Anglo-Protestant) andLower Canadato the east (Franco-Catholic). Lower Canada's lands consisted of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, Labrador and Anticosti Island, with the territory extending north toRupert's Land,and south, east and west to the borders with the US, New Brunswick, and Upper Canada. The creation of Upper and Lower Canada allowed Loyalists to live under British laws and institutions, while Canadiens could maintain their French civil law and Catholic religion. Governor Haldimand drew Loyalists away from Quebec City and Montreal by offering free land on the north shore of Lake Ontario to anyone willing to swear allegiance to George III. During theWar of 1812,Charles-Michel de Salaberrybecame a hero by leading the Canadian troops to victory at theBattle of the Chateauguay.This loss caused the Americans to abandon the Saint Lawrence Campaign, their major strategic effort to conquer Canada.

TheBattle of Saint-Eustachewas the final battle of the Lower Canada Rebellion.

Gradually, theLegislative Assembly of Lower Canada,who represented the people, came into conflict with the superior authority ofthe Crownandits appointed representatives.Starting in 1791, the government of Lower Canada was criticized and contested by theParti canadien.In 1834, the Parti canadien presented its92 resolutions,political demands which expressed loss of confidence in theBritish monarchy.Discontentment intensified throughout thepublic meetingsof 1837, and theLower Canada Rebellionbegan in 1837.In 1837,Louis-Joseph PapineauandRobert Nelsonled residents of Lower Canada to form an armed group called thePatriotes.They made aDeclaration of Independencein 1838, guaranteeing rights and equality for all citizens without discrimination.Their actions resulted in rebellions in both Lower andUpper Canada.The Patriotes were victorious in their first battle, theBattle of Saint-Denis.However, they were unorganized and badly equipped, leading to their loss against the British army in theBattle of Saint-Charles,and defeat in theBattle of Saint-Eustache.

In response to the rebellions,Lord Durhamwas asked to undertake a study and prepare areportoffering a solution to the British Parliament.Durham recommended that Canadiens beculturally assimilated,with English as their only official language. To do this, the British passed theAct of Union 1840,which merged Upper Canada and Lower Canada into a single colony: theProvince of Canada.Lower Canada became the francophone and densely populatedCanada East,and Upper Canada became the anglophone and sparsely populatedCanada West.This union, unsurprisingly, was the main source of political instability until 1867. Despite their population gap, Canada East and Canada West obtained an identical number of seats in theLegislative Assembly of the Province of Canada,which created representation problems. In the beginning, Canada East was underrepresented because of its superior population size. Over time, however, massive immigration from the British Isles to Canada West occurred. Since the two regions continued to have equal representation, this meant it was now Canada West that was under-represented. The representation issues were called into question by debates on"Representation by Population".The British population began to use the term "Canadian",referring to Canada, their place of residence. The French population, who had thus far identified as" Canadiens ", began to be identified with theirethnic communityunder the name "French Canadian"as they were a" French of Canada ".

As access to new lands remained problematic because they were still monopolized by theClique du Château,an exodus of Canadiens towardsNew Englandbegan and went on for the next hundred years. This phenomenon is known as theGrande Hémorragieand threatened the survival of the Canadien nation. The massive British immigration ordered from London that followed the failed rebellion, compounded this. To combat it, the Church adopted therevenge of the cradlepolicy. In 1844, the capital of the Province of Canada was moved fromKingstonto Montreal.

Political unrest came to a head in 1849, when English Canadian riotersset fire to the Parliament Building in Montrealfollowing the enactment of theRebellion Losses Bill,a law that compensated French Canadians whose properties were destroyed during the rebellions of 1837–1838.This bill, resulting from theBaldwin-La Fontainecoalition and Lord Elgin's advice, was important as it established the notion ofresponsible government.In 1854, the seigneurial system was abolished, theGrand Trunk Railwaywas built and theCanadian–American Reciprocity Treatywas implemented. In 1866, theCivil Code of Lower Canadawas adopted.

Canadian province (1867–present)

George-Étienne Cartier,co-premier fromCanada Eastand a Father of Confederation

In 1864, negotiations began forCanadian Confederationbetween the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia at theCharlottetown ConferenceandQuebec Conference.

After having fought as a Patriote,George-Étienne Cartierentered politics in the Province of Canada, becoming one of the co-premiers and advocate for the union of the British North American provinces. He became a leading figure at the Quebec Conference, which produced theQuebec Resolutions,the foundation for Canadian Confederation.Recognized as aFather of Confederation,he successfully argued for the establishment of the province of Quebec, initially composed of the historic heart of the territory of the French Canadian nation and where French Canadians would most likely retain majority status.

Following theLondon Conference of 1866,the Quebec Resolutions were implemented as theBritish North America Act, 1867and brought into force on July 1, 1867, creating Canada. Canada was composed of four founding provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia,Ontarioand Quebec. These last two came from splitting the Province of Canada, and used the old borders of Lower Canada for Quebec, and Upper Canada for Ontario. On July 15, 1867,Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveaubecame Quebec'sfirst premier.

From Confederation until World War I, the Catholic Church was at its peak. The objective of clerico-nationalists was promoting the values of traditional society: family, French, the Catholic Church and rural life. Events such as theNorth-West Rebellion,theManitoba Schools Questionand Ontario'sRegulation 17turned the promotion and defence of the rights of French Canadians into an important concern.Under the aegis of the Catholic Church and the political action ofHenri Bourassa,symbols of national pride were developed, like theFlag of Carillon,and "O Canada"– a patriotic song composed forSaint-Jean-Baptiste Day.Many organizations went on to consecrate the affirmation of the French-Canadian people, including thecaisses populaires Desjardinsin 1900, theClub de hockey Canadienin 1909,Le Devoirin 1910, theCongress on the French language in Canadain 1912, andL'Action nationalein 1917. In 1885, liberal and conservative MPs formed theParti nationalout of anger with the previous government for not having interceded in the execution ofLouis Riel.

In 1898, the Canadian Parliament enacted theQuebec Boundary Extension Act, 1898,which gave Quebec part of Rupert's Land, which Canada had bought from theHudson's Bay Companyin 1870.This act expanded the boundaries of Quebec northward. In 1909, the government passed a law obligating wood and pulp to be transformed in Quebec, which helped slow theGrande Hémorragieby allowing Quebec to export its finished products to the US instead of its labour force.In 1910,Armand Lavergnepassed theLavergne Law,the first language legislation in Quebec. It required use of French alongside English on tickets, documents, bills and contracts issued by transportation and public utility companies. At this time, companies rarely recognized the majority language of Quebec.Clerico-nationalists eventually started to fall out of favour in thefederal elections of 1911.In 1912, the Canadian Parliament enacted theQuebec Boundaries Extension Act, 1912,which gave Quebec another part of Rupert's Land: theDistrict of Ungava.This extended the borders of Quebec northward to theHudson Strait.

When World War I broke out, Canada was automatically involved and many English Canadians volunteered. However, because they did not feel the same connection to the British Empire and there was no direct threat to Canada, French Canadians saw no reason to fight. By late 1916, casualties were beginning to cause reinforcement problems. After enormous difficulty in the federal government, because almost every French-speaking MP opposed conscription while almost all English-speaking MPs supported it, theMilitary Service Actbecame law on August 29, 1917.French Canadians protested in what is now called theConscription Crisis of 1917,which led to theQuebec riot.

In 1919, theprohibitionofspiritswas enacted followinga provincial referendum.But, prohibition was abolished in 1921 due to theAlcoholic Beverages Actwhich created theCommission des liqueurs du Québec.In 1927, the BritishJudicial Committee of the Privy Councildrew a clear border between northeast Quebec and southLabrador.However, the Quebec government did not recognize the ruling of the Judicial Committee, resulting in aboundary disputewhichremains ongoing.TheStatute of Westminster 1931was enacted, and confirmed the autonomy of theDominions– including Canada and its provinces – from the UK, as well as their free association in theCommonwealth.In the 1930s, Quebec's economy was affected by theGreat Depressionbecause it greatly reduced US demand for Quebec exports. Between 1929-32 the unemployment rate increased from 8% to 26%. In an attempt to remedy this, the Quebec government enacted infrastructure projects, campaigns to colonize distant regions, financial assistance to farmers, and thesecours directs– the ancestor to Canada'sEmployment Insurance.

Maurice Duplessis,premier of Quebec from 1936 to 1939 and during theGrande Noirceur

French Canadians remained opposed to conscription during the Second World War. When Canada declared war in September 1939, the federal government pledged not to conscript soldiers for overseas service. As the war went on, more and more English Canadians voiced support for conscription, despite firm opposition from French Canada. Following a 1942 poll that showed 73% of Quebec's residents wereagainstconscription, while 80% or more wereforconscription in every other province, the federal government passedBill 80for overseas service.Protests explodedand theBloc Populaireemerged to fight conscription.The stark differences between the values of French and English Canada popularized the expression the "Two Solitudes".

In the wake of the conscription crisis,Maurice Duplessisof theUnion Nationaleascended to power and implemented conservative policies known as theGrande Noirceur.He focused on defendingprovincial autonomy,Quebec's Catholic and francophone heritage, and laissez-faireliberalisminstead of the emergingwelfare state.However, as early as 1948, French Canadian society began to develop new ideologies and desires in response to societal changes such as the television, thebaby boom,workers' conflicts,electrification of the countryside, emergence of amiddle class,therural exodusandurbanization,expansion of universities and bureaucracies, creation ofmotorways,renaissance of literature and poetry, and others.

Modern Quebec (1960–present)

"Maîtres chez nous"was the electoral slogan of the Liberal Party during the 1962 election.

TheQuiet Revolutionwas a period of modernization, secularization and social reform, where French Canadians expressed their concern and dissatisfaction with their inferiorsocioeconomic position,and the cultural assimilation of francophone minorities in the English-majority provinces. It resulted in the formation of the modern Québécois identity andQuebec nationalism.In 1960, the Liberal Party of Quebec was brought to power with a two-seat majority, having campaigned with the slogan "It's time for things to change". This government made reforms in social policy, education, health and economic development. It created theCaisse de dépôt et placement du Québec,Labour Code,Ministry of Social Affairs,Ministry of Education,Office québécois de la langue française,Régie des rentes andSociété générale de financement.In 1962, the government of Quebec dismantled the financial syndicates ofSaint Jacques Street.Quebec began tonationalize its electricity.In order to buy out all the private electric companies and build newHydro-Québecdams, Quebec was lent $300 million by the US in 1962,and $100 million byBritish Columbiain 1964.

The Quiet Revolution was particularly characterized by the 1962 Liberal Party's slogan "Masters in our own house", which, to the Anglo-American conglomerates that dominated the economy and natural resources, announced a collective will for freedom of the French-Canadian people.As a result of confrontations between the lowerclergyand thelaity,state institutions began to deliver services without the assistance of the church, and many parts ofcivil societybegan to be more secular. In 1965, theRoyal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalismwrote a preliminary report underlining Quebec's distinct character, and promoted open federalism, a political attitude guaranteeing Quebec a minimum amount of consideration.To favour Quebec during its Quiet Revolution,Lester B. Pearsonadopted a policy of open federalism.In 1966, the Union Nationale was re-elected and continued on with major reforms.

Charles De Gaulle,(1890-1970), on the occasion ofExpo 1967,Chemin du Roy,Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pérade.

In 1967, President of FranceCharles de Gaullevisited Quebec, to attendExpo 67.There, he addressed a crowd of more than 100,000, making a speech ending with the exclamation: "Long live free Quebec". This declaration had a profound effect on Quebec by bolstering the burgeoning modernQuebec sovereignty movementand resulting in a political crisis between France and Canada. Following this, various civilian groups developed, sometimes confronting public authority, for example in theOctober Crisisof 1970.The meetings of theEstates General of French Canadain 1967 marked a tipping point where relations betweenfrancophones of America,and especially francophones of Canada, ruptured. This breakdown affected Quebec society's evolution.

In 1968,class conflictsand changes in mentalities intensified.Option Quebecsparked a constitutional debate on the political future of the province by pittingfederalistandsovereignistdoctrines against each other. In 1969, the federalOfficial Languages Actwas passed to introduce a linguistic context conducive to Quebec's development.In 1973, the liberal government ofRobert Bourassainitiated theJames Bay ProjectonLa Grande River.In 1974, it enacted theOfficial Language Act,which made French the official language of Quebec. In 1975, it established theCharter of Human Rights and Freedomsand theJames Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement.

René Lévesque(1922 –1987), one of the architects of the Quiet Revolution, and the Premier of Quebec's first modern sovereignist government

Quebec's first modern sovereignist government, led byRené Lévesque,materialized when theParti Québécoiswas brought to power in the1976 Quebec general election.TheCharter of the French Languagecame into force the following year, which increased the use of French. Between 1966-69, the Estates General of French Canada confirmed thestate of Quebecto be thenation's fundamental political milieuand for it to have the right toself-determination.In the1980 referendumon sovereignty, 60% were against.After the referendum, Lévesque went back to Ottawa to start negotiating constitutional changes. On November 4, 1981, theKitchen Accordtook place. Delegations from the other nine provinces and the federal government reached an agreement in the absence of Quebec's delegation, which had left for the night.Because of this, the National Assembly refused to recognize the newConstitution Act, 1982,which patriated the Canadian constitution and made modifications to it.The 1982 amendments apply to Quebec despite Quebec never having consented to it.

Between 1982-92, the Quebec government's attitude changed to prioritize reforming the federation. Attempts at constitutional amendments by theMulroneyand Bourassa governments ended in failure with theMeech Lake Accordof 1987 and theCharlottetown Accordof 1992, resulting in the creation of theBloc Québécois.In 1995, Jacques Parizeau called areferendum on Quebec's independencefrom Canada. This consultation ended in failure for sovereignists, though the outcome was very close: 50.6% "no" and 49.4% "yes".

In 1998, following theSupreme Court of Canada's decision on theReference Re Secession of Quebec,the Parliaments of Canada and Quebec defined thelegal frameworkswithin which their respective governments would act in another referendum. On October 30, 2003, the National Assembly voted unanimously to affirm "that the people of Québec form a nation".On November 27, 2006, the House of Commons passed asymbolic motiondeclaring "that this House recognize that the Québécois form a nation within a united Canada."In 2007, the Parti Québécois was pushed back to official opposition in the National Assembly, with the Liberal party leading. During the2011 Canadian federal elections,Quebec voters rejected the Bloc Québécois in favour of the previously minorNew Democratic Party(NDP). As the NDP's logo is orange, this was called the "orange wave".After three subsequent Liberal governments, the Parti Québécois regained power in 2012 and its leader,Pauline Marois,became the first female premier of Quebec.The Liberal Party of Quebec then returned to power in 2014.In 2018, theCoalition Avenir Québecwon theprovincial general elections.Between 2020-21, Quebec took measures against theCOVID-19 pandemic.In 2022, Coalition Avenir Québec, led by Quebec's premierFrançois Legault,increased its parliamentary majority in theprovincial general elections.

• Territorial evolution of Quebec
• 
  Canadain the 18th century.
• 
  TheProvince of Quebecfrom 1763 to 1783.
• 
  Lower Canadafrom 1791 to 1841. (Patriots' Warin 1837,Canada Eastin 1841)
• 
  Quebec from 1867 to 1927.
• 
  Quebec today. Quebec (in blue) has a border dispute withLabrador(in red).

Geography

Main article:Geography of Quebec

See also:List of rivers of QuebecandList of lakes of Quebec

Map of Quebec

Located in theeastern partof Canada, Quebec occupies a territory nearly three times the size ofFranceorTexas.Most of Quebec is very sparsely populated.The most populousphysiographicregion is theGreat Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands.The combination of rich soils and the lowlands' relatively warm climate makes this valley the most prolific agricultural area of Quebec. The rural part of the landscape is divided into narrow rectangular tracts of land that extend from the river and date back to the seigneurial system.

Quebec'stopographyis very different from one region to another due to the varying composition of the ground, the climate, and the proximity to water. More than 95% of Quebec's territory, including theLabrador Peninsula,lies within theCanadian Shield.It is generally a quite flat and exposed mountainous terrain interspersed with higher points such as theLaurentian Mountainsin southern Quebec, theOtish Mountainsin central Quebec and theTorngat MountainsnearUngava Bay.While low and medium altitude peaks extend from western Quebec to the far north, high altitudes mountains emerge in theCapitale-Nationaleregion to the extreme east. Quebec's highest point at 1,652 metres (5,420 ft) is Mont d'Iberville, known in English asMount Caubvick.In the Labrador Peninsula portion of the Shield, the far northern region ofNunavikincludes the Ungava Peninsula and consists of flat Arctictundrainhabited mostly by the Inuit. Further south is theEastern Canadian Shield taigaecoregion and theCentral Canadian Shield forests.TheAppalachianregion has a narrow strip of ancient mountains along the southeastern border of Quebec.

Michel's falls onAshuapmushuan RiverinSaint-Félicien,Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean

Quebec has one of the world's largest reserves offresh water,occupying 12% of its surfaceand representing 3% of the world'srenewable fresh water.More than half a million lakes and 4,500 riversempty into theAtlantic Ocean,through theGulf of Saint Lawrenceand theArctic Ocean,byJames,Hudson,and Ungava bays. The largest inland body of water is theCaniapiscau Reservoir;Lake Mistassiniis the largest natural lake.TheSaint Lawrence Riverhas some of the world's largest sustaining inland Atlantic ports. Since 1959, theSaint Lawrence Seawayhas provided a navigable link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes.

Thepublic landsof Quebec cover approximately 92% of its territory, including almost all of the bodies of water.Protected areascan be classified into about twenty different legal designations (ex. exceptional forest ecosystem, protected marine environment,national park,biodiversity reserve,wildlife reserve,zone d'exploitation contrôlée(ZEC), etc.).More than 2,500 sites in Quebec today are protected areas.As of 2013, protected areas comprise 9.14% of Quebec's territory.

Climate

Köppen climate typesof Quebec

In general, the climate of Quebec is cold and humid, with variations determined by latitude, maritime and elevation influences.Because of the influence of both storm systems from the core of North America and the Atlantic Ocean, precipitation is abundant throughout the year, with most areas receiving more than 1,000 mm (39 in) of precipitation, including over 300 cm (120 in) of snow in many areas.During the summer, severe weather patterns (such astornadoesand severethunderstorms) occur occasionally.

Baie-Saint-Paulduring winter

Quebec is divided into four climatic zones: arctic, subarctic, humid continental and East maritime. From south to north, average temperatures range in summer between 25 and 5 °C (77 and 41 °F) and, in winter, between −10 and −25 °C (14 and −13 °F).In periods of intense heat and cold, temperatures can reach 35 °C (95 °F) in the summerand −40 °C (−40 °F) during the Quebec winter,Most of central Quebec, ranging from 51 to 58 degrees North has asubarctic climate(KöppenDfc).Winters are long, very cold, and snowy, and among the coldest in eastern Canada, while summers are warm but very short due to the higher latitude and the greater influence of Arctic air masses. Precipitation is also somewhat less than farther south, except at some of the higher elevations. The northern regions of Quebec have anarctic climate(KöppenET), with very cold winters and short, much cooler summers.The primary influences in this region are the Arctic Ocean currents (such as theLabrador Current) and continental air masses from the HighArctic.

The all-time record high temperature was 40.0 °C (104.0 °F) and the all-time record low was −51.0 °C (−59.8 °F).The all-time record of the greatest precipitation in winter was established in winter 2007–2008, with more than five metresof snow in the area of Quebec City.March 1971, however, saw the "Century's Snowstorm"with more than 40 cm (16 in) in Montreal to 80 cm (31 in) inMont Apicaof snow within 24 hours in many regions of southern Quebec. The winter of 2010 was the warmest and driest recorded in more than 60 years.

Flora and fauna

Different forest areas of Quebec.

1. Middle Arctic Tundra

2. Low Arctic Tundra

3. Torngat Mountain Tundra

4. Eastern Canadian Shield Taiga

5. Southern Hudson Bay Taiga

6. Central Canadian Shield Forests

7. Eastern Canadian Forests

8. Eastern Forest/Boreal Transition

9. Eastern Great Lakes Lowland Forests

10. New England/Acadian Forests

11. Gulf of St. Lawrence Lowland Forests

Given the geology of the province and its different climates, there are a number of large areas of vegetation in Quebec. These areas, listed in order from the northernmost to the southernmost are: thetundra,thetaiga,theCanadian boreal forest(coniferous),mixed forestanddeciduousforest.On the edge of Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait is the tundra, whose flora is limited tolichenwith less than 50 growing days per year. Further south, the climate is conducive to the growth of theCanadian boreal forest,bounded on the north by the taiga. Not as arid as the tundra, the taiga is associated with the subarctic regions of the Canadian Shieldand is characterized by a greater number of both plant (600) and animal (206) species. The taiga covers about 20% of the total area of Quebec.The Canadian boreal forest is the northernmost and most abundant of the three forest areas in Quebec that straddle the Canadian Shield and the upper lowlands of the province. Given a warmer climate, the diversity of organisms is also higher: there are about 850 plant species and 280 vertebrate species. Themixed forestis a transition zone between the Canadian boreal forest anddeciduous forest.This area contains a diversity of plant (1000) andvertebrates(350) species, despite relatively cool temperatures. The ecozone mixed forest is characteristic of theLaurentians,theAppalachiansand the eastern lowland forests.The third most northern forest area is characterized bydeciduous forests.Because of its climate, this area has the greatest diversity of species, including more than 1600vascular plantsand 440 vertebrates.

The total forest area of Quebec is estimated at 750,300 km²(289,700 sq mi).From theAbitibi-Témiscamingueto theNorth Shore,the forest is composed primarily of conifers such as theAbies balsamea,thejack pine,thewhite spruce,theblack spruceand thetamarack.The deciduous forest of the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands is mostly composed of deciduous species such as thesugar maple,thered maple,thewhite ash,theAmerican beech,thebutternut (white walnut),theAmerican elm,thebasswood,thebitternut hickoryand thenorthern red oakas well as some conifers such as theeastern white pineand thenorthern whitecedar.The distribution areas of thepaper birch,thetrembling aspenand themountain ashcover more than half of Quebec's territory.

Biodiversity of the estuary and gulf of Saint Lawrence Riverincludes aquatic mammal wildlife, such as theblue whale,thebeluga,theminke whaleand theharp seal(earless seal). The Nordic marine animals include thewalrusand thenarwhal.Inland waters are populated by small to large freshwater fish, such as thelargemouth bass,theAmerican pickerel,thewalleye,theAcipenser oxyrinchus,themuskellunge,theAtlantic cod,theArctic char,thebrook trout,theMicrogadus tomcod(tomcod), theAtlantic salmon,and therainbow trout.

Among the birds commonly seen in the southern part of Quebec are theAmerican robin,thehouse sparrow,thered-winged blackbird,themallard,thecommon grackle,theblue jay,theAmerican crow,theblack-capped chickadee,somewarblersandswallows,thestarlingand therock pigeon.Avian fauna includes birds of prey like thegolden eagle,theperegrine falcon,thesnowy owland thebald eagle.Sea and semi-aquatic birds seen in Quebec are mostly theCanada goose,thedouble-crested cormorant,thenorthern gannet,theEuropean herring gull,thegreat blue heron,thesandhill crane,theAtlantic puffinand thecommon loon.

The large land wildlife includes thewhite-tailed deer,themoose,themuskox,thecaribou (reindeer),theAmerican black bearand thepolar bear.The medium-sized land wildlife includes thecougar,thecoyote,theeastern wolf,thebobcat,theArctic fox,the fox, etc. The small animals seen most commonly include theeastern grey squirrel,thesnowshoe hare,thegroundhog,theskunk,theraccoon,thechipmunkand theCanadian beaver.

Government and politics

Main articles:Government of QuebecandPolitics of Quebec

TheParliament Buildingin Quebec City

Quebec is founded on theWestminster system,and is both aliberal democracyand aconstitutional monarchywithparliamentary regime.The head of government in Quebec is thepremier(calledpremier ministrein French), who leads the largest party in theunicameralNational Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) from which theExecutive Council of Quebecis appointed. TheConseil du trésorsupports the ministers of the Executive Council in their function of stewardship of the state. Thelieutenant governorrepresents theKing of Canadaand acts as the province'shead of state.

Quebec has 78members of Parliament(MPs) in theHouse of Commons of Canada.They are elected in federal elections. At the level of theSenate of Canada,Quebec is represented by 24 senators, which are appointed on the advice of theprime minister of Canada.

The Quebec government holdsadministrativeandpoliceauthority in its areas ofexclusive jurisdiction.The Parliament of the43rd legislatureis made up of the following parties:Coalition Avenir Québec(CAQ),Parti libéral du Québec(PLQ),Québec solidaire(QS) andParti Québécois(PQ), as well as anindependent member.There are25 official political parties in Quebec.

Quebec has a network of three offices for representing itself and defending its interests within Canada: one in Moncton for all provinces east, one in Toronto for all provinces west, and one in Ottawa for the federal government. These offices' mandate is to ensure an institutional presence of the Government of Quebec near other Canadian governments.

Subdivisions

Main article:Administrative divisions of Quebec

The ecological classification of Quebec territory established by theMinistry of Forests, Wildlife and Parks2021, is presented in 9 levels, it includes the diversity of terrestrialecosystemsthroughout Quebec while taking into account both the characteristics of thevegetation(physiognomy, structure and composition) and the physical environment (relief,geology,geomorphology,hydrography).

1. Vegetation zone
2. Vegetation subzone
3. Bioclimatic domain
4. Bioclimatic subdomain
5. Ecological region
6. Ecological subregion
7. Regional landscape unit
8. Ecological district
9. Vegetation stage

Quebec's territory is divided into 17administrative regionsas follows:

Theseventeen administrative regionsof Quebec.

1. Bas-Saint-Laurent
2. Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean
3. Capitale-Nationale
4. Mauricie
5. Estrie
6. Montréal
7. Outaouais
8. Abitibi-Témiscamingue
9. Côte-Nord
10. Nord-du-Québec
11. Gaspésie–Îles-de-la-Madeleine
12. Chaudière-Appalaches
13. Laval
14. Lanaudière
15. Laurentides
16. Montérégie
17. Centre-du-Québec

The province also has the following divisions:

• 4 territories (Abitibi,Ashuanipi,MistassiniandNunavik) which group together the lands that once formed theDistrict of Ungava
• 36judicial districts
• 73circonscriptions foncières
• 125electoral districts

For municipal purposes, Quebec is composed of:

• 1,117local municipalitiesof varioustypes:
  • 11agglomerations(agglomérations) grouping 42 of these local municipalities
  • 45boroughs(arrondissements) within 8 of these local municipalities
• 89regional county municipalitiesor RCMs (municipalités régionales de comté, MRC)
• 2metropolitan communities(communautés métropolitaines)
• the regionalKativikadministration
• theunorganised territories

Ministries and policies

Quebec's constitution is enshrined in a series of social and cultural traditions that are defined in a set of judicial judgments and legislative documents, including theLoi sur l'Assemblée Nationale( "Law on the National Assembly" ), theLoi sur l'éxecutif( "Law on the Executive" ), and theLoi électorale du Québec( "Electoral Law of Quebec" ).Other notable examples include theCharter of Human Rights and Freedoms,theCharter of the French language,and theCivil Code of Quebec.

Quebec's international policy is founded upon theGérin-Lajoie doctrine,formulated in 1965. While Quebec'sMinistry of International Relationscoordinates international policy,Quebec's general delegationsare the main interlocutors in foreign countries. Quebec is the only Canadian province that has set up a ministry to exclusively embody the state's powers for international relations.

Since 2006, Quebec has adopted a green plan to meet the objectives of theKyoto Protocolregarding climate change.TheMinistry of Sustainable Development, Environment, and Fight Against Climate Change(MELCC) is the primary entity responsible for the application of environmental policy. TheSociété des établissements de plein air du Québec(SEPAQ) is the main body responsible for the management of national parks and wildlife reserves.Nearly 500,000 people took part in a climate protest on the streets of Montreal in 2019.

Agriculture in Quebec has been subject toagricultural zoningregulations since 1978.Faced with the problem of expandingurban sprawl,agricultural zones were created to ensure the protection of fertile land, which make up 2% of Quebec's total area.Quebec's forestsare essentially public property. The calculation of annual cutting possibilities is the responsibility of theBureau du forestier en chef.TheUnion des producteurs agricoles(UPA) seeks to protect the interests of its members, including forestry workers, and works jointly with theMinistry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food(MAPAQ) and theMinistry of Energy and Natural Resources.

TheMinistère de l'Emploi et de la Solidarité sociale du Québechas the mandate to oversee social and workforce developments through Emploi-Québec and its local employment centres (CLE).This ministry is also responsible for managing theRégime québécois d'assurance parentale(QPIP) as well as last-resort financial support for people in need. TheCommission des normes, de l'équité, de la santé et de la sécurité du travail(CNESST) is the main body responsible for labour laws in Quebecand for enforcing agreements concluded between unions of employees and their employers.

Revenu Québecis the body responsible for collecting taxes. It takes its revenue through aprogressive income tax,a 9.975% sales tax,various other provincial taxes (ex. carbon, corporate and capital gains taxes),equalization payments,transfer payments from other provinces, and direct payments.By some measures Quebec residents are the most taxed;a 2012 study indicated that "Quebec companies pay 26 per cent more in taxes than the Canadian average".

Quebec's immigration philosophy is based on the principles of pluralism andinterculturalism.TheMinistère de l'Immigration et des Communautés culturelles du Québecis responsible for the selection and integration of immigrants.Programs favour immigrants who know French, have a low risk of becoming criminals and have in-demand skills.

Quebec's health and social services network is administered by theMinistry of Health and Social Services.It is composed of 95réseaux locaux de services(RLS; 'local service networks') and 18agences de la santé et des services sociaux(ASSS; 'health and social services agencies'). Quebec's health system is supported by theRégie de l'assurance maladie du Québec(RAMQ) which works to maintain the accessibility of services for all citizens of Quebec.

TheMinistère de la Famille et des Aînés du Québecoperatecentres de la petite enfance(CPEs; 'centres for young children').Quebec's education systemis administered by theMinistry of Education and Higher Education(primaryandsecondaryschools), theMinistère de l'Enseignement supérieur(CEGEP) and theConseil supérieure de l'Education du Québec(universities and colleges).In 2012, the annual cost for postsecondarytuitionwas CA$2,168 (€1,700)—less than half of Canada's average tuition. Part of the reason for this is that tuition fees were frozen to a relatively low level when CEGEPS were created during the Quiet Revolution. When Jean Charest's government decided in 2012 to sharply increase university fees,students protestserupted.Because of these protests, Quebec's tuition fees remain relatively low.

External relationships

Quebec's closest international partner is the United States, with which it shares a long and positive history. Products ofAmerican culturelike songs, movies, fashion and food strongly affect Québécois culture.

Quebec has a historied relationship with France, as Quebec was a part of the French Empire and both regions share a language. TheFédération France-Québecand theFrancophonieare a few of the tools used for relations between Quebec and France. InParis,aplace du Québecwas inaugurated in 1980.Quebec also has a historied relationship with the United Kingdom, having been a part of the British Empire. Quebec and the UK share the same head of state,King Charles III.

Quebec has anetwork of 32 officesin 18 countries. These offices serve the purpose of representing Quebec in foreign countries and are overseen by Quebec'sMinistry of International Relations.Quebec, like other Canadian provinces, also maintains representatives in some Canadian embassies and consulates general. As of 2019,the Government of Quebec had delegates-general (agents-general) inBrussels,London,Mexico City,Munich,New York City,Paris andTokyo;delegates toAtlanta,Boston,Chicago,Houston,Los Angeles,andRome;and offices headed by directors offering more limited services inBarcelona,Beijing,Dakar,Hong Kong,Mumbai,São Paulo,Shanghai,Stockholm,andWashington.In addition, there are the equivalent ofhonorary consuls,titledantennes,inBerlin,Philadelphia,Qingdao,Seoul,andSilicon Valley.

Quebec also has a representative toUNESCOand participates in theOrganization of American States.Quebec is a member of theAssemblée parlementaire de la Francophonieand of theOrganisation internationale de la francophonie.

Law

Main articles:Quebec lawandBar of Quebec

TheÉdifice Ernest-Cormieris the courthouse for theQuebec Court of Appealin Montreal

Quebec law is the shared responsibility of thefederalandprovincial government.The federal government is responsible forcriminal law,foreign affairs and laws relating to the regulation of Canadian commerce, interprovincial transportation, and telecommunications.The provincial government is responsible forprivate law,the administration of justice, and several social domains, such as social assistance, healthcare, education, and natural resources.

Quebec law is influenced by two judicial traditions (civil lawandcommon law) and four classicsources of law(legislation,case law,doctrine andcustomary law).Private law in Quebec affects all relationships between individuals (naturalorjuridicalpersons) and is largely under the jurisdiction of theParliament of Quebec.TheParliament of Canadaalso influences Quebec private law, in particular through its power over banks, bankruptcy, marriage, divorce andmaritime law.TheDroit civil du Québecis the primary component of Quebec's private law and iscodifiedin theCivil Code of Quebec.Public law in Quebec is largely derived from the common law tradition.Quebecconstitutional lawgoverns the rules surrounding the Quebec government, the Parliament of Quebec and Quebec's courts. Quebecadministrative lawgoverns relations between individuals and the Quebec public administration. Quebec also has some limited jurisdiction over criminal law. Finally, Quebec, like the federal government, hastax lawpower.Certain portions of Quebec law are considered mixed. This is the case, for example, withhuman rights and freedomswhich are governed by theQuebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms,a Charter which applies to both government and citizens.

English is not an official language inQuebec law.However, both English and French are required by theConstitution Act, 1867for the enactment of laws and regulations, and any person may use English or French in the National Assembly and the courts. The books and records of the National Assembly must also be kept in both languages.

Courts

Although Quebec is a civil law jurisdiction, it does not follow the pattern of other civil law systems which have court systems divided by subject matter. Instead, the court system follows the English model of unitary courts of general jurisdiction. The provincial courts have jurisdiction to decide matters underprovincial lawas well asfederal law,includingcivil,criminalandconstitutional matters.The major exception to the principle of general jurisdiction is that theFederal CourtandFederal Court of Appealhave exclusive jurisdiction over some areas of federal law, such as review of federal administrative bodies, federal taxes, and matters relating to national security.

The Quebec courts are organized in a pyramid. At the bottom, there are themunicipal courts,the Professions Tribunal, the Human Rights Tribunal, and administrative tribunals. Decisions of those bodies can be reviewed by the two trial courts, theCourt of QuebectheSuperior Court of Quebec.The Court of Quebec is the main criminal trial court, and also a court for small civil claims. The Superior Court is a trial court of general jurisdiction, in both criminal and civil matters. The decisions of those courts can be appealed to theQuebec Court of Appeal.Finally, if the case is of great importance, it may be appealed to theSupreme Court of Canada.

The Court of Appeal serves two purposes. First, it is the general court of appeal for all legal issues from the lower courts. It hears appeals from the trial decisions of the Superior Court and the Quebec Court. It also can hear appeals from decisions rendered by those two courts on appeals or judicial review matters relating to the municipal courts and administrative tribunals.Second, but much more rarely, the Court of Appeal possesses the power to respond toreference questionsposed to it by theQuebec Cabinet.The Court of Appeal renders more than 1,500 judgments per year.

Law enforcement

TheSûreté du Québecis the main police force of Quebec. The Sûreté du Québec can also serve a support and coordination role with other police forces, such as with municipal police forces or with theRoyal Canadian Mounted Police(RCMP).The RCMP has the power to enforce certain federal laws in Quebec. However, given the existence of the Sûreté du Québec, its role is more limited than in the other provinces.

Municipal police, such as theService de police de la Ville de Montréaland theService de police de la Ville de Québec,are responsible for law enforcement in their municipalities. The Sûreté du Québec fulfils the role of municipal police in the 1038 municipalities that do not have a municipal police force.The Indigenous communities of Quebec have their own police forces.

For offences against provincial or federal laws in Quebec (including theCriminal Code), theDirector of Criminal and Penal Prosecutionsis responsible for prosecuting offenders in court throughCrown attorneys.TheDepartment of Justice of Canadaalso has the power to prosecute offenders, but only for offences against specific federal laws (ex. sellingnarcotics). Quebec is responsible for operating theprison systemfor sentences of less than two years, and the federal government operatespenitentiariesfor sentences of two years or more.

Demographics

Main article:Demographics of Quebec

Population density map of Quebec

In the2016 census,Quebec had a population of 8,164,361, a 3.3% increase from its 2011 population of 7,903,001. With a land area of 1,356,625.27 km²(523,795.95 sq mi), it had a population density of6.0/km²(15.6/sq mi) in 2016. Quebec accounts for a little under 23% of the Canadian population. Themost populated cities in QuebecareMontreal(1,762,976),Quebec City(538,738),Laval(431,208), andGatineau(281,501).

In 2016, Quebec's median age was 41.2 years. As of 2020, 20.8% of the population were younger than 20, 59.5% were aged between 20 and 64, and 19.7% were 65 or older. In 2019, Quebec witnessed an increase in the number of births compared to the year before (84,200 vs 83,840) and had atotal fertility rateof about 1.6 children born per woman. As of 2020, the average life expectancy was 82.3 years. Quebec in 2019 registered the highest rate of population growth since 1972, with an increase of 110,000 people, mostly because of the arrival of a high number of immigrants. As of 2019, most international immigrants came from China, India or France.In 2016, 30% of the population possessed apostsecondarydegree or diploma. Most residents, particularly couples, areproperty owners.In 2016, 80% of both property owners and renters considered their housing to be "unaffordable".In the2021 Canadian census,29.3% of Quebec's population stated their ancestry was of Canadian origin and 21.1% stated their ancestry was of French origin.As of 2021, 18% of Quebec's population werevisible minorities.

Religion

Main article:Religion in Quebec

TheBasilica of Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré

According to the2021 census,the most commonly cited religions in Quebec were:

• Christianity(5,385,240 residents, or 64.8%)
• Irreligion(2,267,720 or 27.3%)
• Islam(421,710 or 5.1%)
• Judaism(84,530 or 1.0%)
• Buddhism(48,365 or 0.6%)
• Hinduism(47,390 or 0.6%)
• Sikhism(23,345 or 0.3%)
• Indigenous spirituality(3,790 or <0.1%)
• Other (26,385 or 0.3%)

TheRoman Catholic Churchhas long occupied a central and integral place in Quebec society since the foundation of Quebec City in 1608. However, since theQuiet Revolution,which secularized Quebec, irreligion has been growing significantly.

The oldestparish churchin North America is theCathedral-Basilica of Notre-Dame de Québec.Its construction began in 1647, when it was known under the nameNotre-Dame-de-la-Paix,and it was finished in 1664.The most frequented place of worship in Quebec is theBasilica of Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré.This basilica welcomes millions of visitors each year.Saint Joseph's Oratoryis the largest place of worship in the world dedicated toSaint Joseph.Many pilgrimages include places such asSaint Benedict Abbey,Sanctuaire Notre-Dame-du-Cap,Notre-Dame de Montréal Basilica,Marie-Reine-du-Monde de Montréal Basilica-Cathedral,Saint-Michel Basilica-Cathedral,andSaint-Patrick's Basilica.Another important place of worship in Quebec is the Anglican Holy Trinity Cathedral, which was erected between 1800 and 1804. It was the first Anglican cathedral built outside the British Isles.

Language

Main article:Language demographics of Quebec

Linguistic map of the province of Quebec (source: Statistics Canada, 2006 census) Francophone majority, less than 33% Anglophone Francophone majority, more than 33% Anglophone Anglophone majority, more than 33% Francophone Anglophone majority, less than 33% Francophone Data not available

Quebec differs from other Canadian provinces in thatFrenchis the onlyofficialand preponderant language, whileEnglishpredominates in therest of Canada.French is thecommon language,understood and spoken by 94.4% of the population.Québécois Frenchis the localvariantof the language. Canada is estimated to be home to roughly 30 regional French accents,17 of which can be found in Quebec.TheOffice québécois de la langue françaiseoversees the application of linguistic policies respecting French on the territory, jointly with theSuperior Council of the French Languageand theCommission de toponymie du Québec.The foundation for these linguistic policies was created in 1968 by theGendron Commissionand they have been accompanied theCharter of the French language( "Bill 101" ) since 1977. The policies are in effect to protect Quebec from being assimilated by its English-speaking neighbours (the rest of Canada and the United States)and were also created to rectify historical injustice between the Francophone majority and Anglophone minority, the latter of which were favoured since Quebec was a colony of the British Empire.

Quebec is the only Canadian province whose population is mainlyFrancophone,meaning that French is their native language. In the2011 Census,6,102,210 people (78.1% of the population) recorded French as their sole native language and 6,249,085 (80.0%) recorded that they spoke French most often at home.

People with English as their native language, calledAnglo-Quebecers,constitute the second largest linguistic group in Quebec. In 2011,Englishwas the mother tongue of nearly 650,000 Quebecers (8% of the population).Anglo-Quebecers reside mainly in the west of the island of Montreal (West Island),downtown Montrealand thePontiac.

Three families of Indigenous languages encompassing eleven languages exist in Quebec: theAlgonquian language family(Abenaki,Algonquin,Maliseet-passamaquoddy,Mi'kmaq,and thelinguistic continuumofAtikamekw,Cree,Innu-aimun,andNaskapi), theInuit–Aleut language family(Nunavimmiutitut, anInuktitut dialectspoken by theInuitofNord-du-Québec), and theIroquoian language family(MohawkandWendat). In the 2016 census, 50,895 people said they knew at least one Indigenous languageand 45,570 people declared having an Indigenous language as their mother tongue.In Quebec, most Indigenous languages are transmitted quite well from one generation to the next with a mother tongue retention rate of 92%.

As of the2016 census,the most common immigrant languages claimed as a native language wereArabic(2.5% of the total population),Spanish(1.9%),Italian(1.4%), Creole languages (mainlyHaitian Creole) (0.8%), andMandarin(0.6%).

As of the2021 Canadian Census,the ten most spoken languages in the province wereFrench(spoken by 7,786,735 people, or 93.72% of the population),English(4,317,180 or 51.96%),Spanish(453,905 or 5.46%),Arabic(343,675 or 4.14%),Italian(168,040 or 2.02%),Haitian Creole(118,010 or 1.42%),Mandarin(80,520 or 0.97%),Portuguese(65,605 or 0.8%),Russian(55,485 or 0.7%), andGreek(50,375 or 0.6%).The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses.

Indigenous peoples

Main article:Indigenous peoples in Quebec

Map of aboriginal communities in Quebec, this includesreserves,settlementsandnorthern villages.

Algonquins

Attikameks

Abenakis

Crees

Hurons-Wendat

Innus

Maliseets

Micmacs

Mohawks

Naskapis

Inuit

In 2021, the Indigenous population of Quebec numbered 205,010 (2.5% of the population), including 15,800Inuit,116,550First Nationspeople, and 61,010Métis.There is an undercount, as some Indian bands regularly refuse to participate in Canadian censuses. In 2016, theMohawkreserves ofKahnawakeandDoncaster 17along with theIndian settlementofKanesatakeandLac-Rapide,a reserve of theAlgonquins of Barriere Lake,were not counted.

The Inuit of Quebec live mainly inNunavikinNord-du-Québec.They make up the majority of the population living north of the 55th parallel. There are ten First Nations ethnic groups in Quebec: theAbenaki,theAlgonquin,theAttikamek,theCree,theWolastoqiyik,theMi'kmaq,theInnu,theNaskapis,theHuron-Wendatand theMohawks.The Mohawks were once part of theIroquois Confederacy. Aboriginal rights were enunciated in theIndian Actand adopted at the end of the 19th century. This act confinesFirst Nationswithin thereservescreated for them. The Indian Act is still in effect today.In 1975, theCree,Inuitand the Quebec government agreed to an agreement called theJames Bay and Northern Quebec Agreementthat would extended indigenous rights beyond reserves, and to over two-thirds of Quebec's territory. Because this extension was enacted without the participation of thefederal government,the extended indigenous rights only exist in Quebec. In 1978, theNaskapisjoined the agreement when theNortheastern Quebec Agreementwas signed. Discussions have been underway with the Montagnais of theCôte-NordandSaguenay–Lac-Saint-Jeanfor the potential creation of a similar autonomy in two new distinct territories that would be calledInnu AssiandNitassinan.

A few political institutions have also been created over time:

• TheAssembly of First Nations Quebec-Labrador
• TheGrand Council of the Crees
• TheMakivik Corporation

Acadians

The subject ofAcadians in Quebecis an important one as more than a million people in Quebec are ofAcadiandescent, with roughly 4.8 million people possessing one or multiple Acadian ancestors in their genealogy tree, because a large number of Acadians had fledAcadiato take refuge in Quebec during theGreat Upheaval.Furthermore, more than a million people have apatronymof Acadian origin.

Quebec houses Acadian communities. Acadians mainly live on theMagdalen Islandsand inGaspesia,but about thirty other communities are present elsewhere in Quebec, mostly in theCôte-NordandCentre-du-Québecregions. An Acadian community in Quebec can be called a "Cadie", "Petite Cadie" or "Cadien".

Economy

Main article:Economy of Quebec

TheInstitut national de la recherche scientifiquehelps to advance scientific knowledge and to train a new generation of students in various scientific and technological sectors.

Quebec has anadvanced,market-based,andopen economy.In 2022, itsgross domestic product(GDP) wasUS$50,000per person atpurchasing power parity.The economy of Quebec is the46th largest in the worldbehindChileand29thfor GDP per person.Quebec represents 19% of theGDP of Canada.The provincialdebt-to-GDP ratiopeaked at 51% in 2012–2013, and declined to 43% in 2021.

Like mostindustrialized countries,the economy is based mainly on theservices sector.Quebec's economy has traditionally been fuelled by abundant natural resources and a well-developed infrastructure, but has undergone significant change over the past decade.Firmly grounded in theknowledge economy,Quebec has one of the highest growth rates of GDP in Canada. The knowledge sector represents about 31% of Quebec's GDP.In 2011, Quebec experienced faster growth of itsresearch-and-development(R&D) spending than other Canadian provinces.Quebec's spending in R&D in 2011 was equal to 2.63% of GDP, above theEuropean Unionaverage of 1.8%.The percentage spent on research and technology is the highest in Canada and higher than the averages for theOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Developmentand theG7countries.

Some of the most important companies from Quebec are:Bombardier,Desjardins,theNational Bank of Canada,theJean Coutu Group,Transcontinental média,Quebecor,theMétro Inc.food retailers,Hydro-Québec,theSociété des alcools du Québec,theBank of Montreal,Saputo,theCirque du Soleil,theCaisse de dépôt et placement du Québec,the Normandin restaurants, andVidéotron.

Exports and imports

Quebec's exports to the international market. The United States is the country which buys the most exports from Quebec by far. (2011)

Thanks to theWorld Trade Organization(WTO) and theNorth American Free Trade Agreement(NAFTA), Quebec had, as of 2009,experienced an increase in its exports and in its ability to compete on the international market. International exchanges contribute to the strength of the Quebec economy.NAFTA is especially advantageous as it gives Quebec, among other things, access to a market of 130 million consumers within a radius of 1,000 kilometres.

In 2008, Quebec's exports to other provinces in Canada and abroad totalled 157.3 billionCND$,or 51.8% of Quebec'sgross domestic product(GDP). Of this total, 60.4% were international exports, and 39.6% were interprovincial exports. The breakdown by destination of international merchandise exports is: United States (72.2%), Europe (14.4%), Asia (5.1%), Middle East (2.7%), Central America (2.3%), South America (1.9%), Africa (0.8%) and Oceania (0.7%).

In 2008, Quebec imported $178 billion worth of goods and services, or 58.6% of its GDP. Of this total, 62.9% of goods were imported from international markets, while 37.1% of goods were interprovincial imports. The breakdown by origin of international merchandise imports is as follows: United States (31.1%), Europe (28.7%), Asia (17.1%), Africa (11.7%), South America (4.5%), Central America (3.7%), Middle East (1.3%) and Oceania (0.7%).

Primary sector

TheBeauharnois generating station,operated byHydro-Québec

Quebec produces most of Canada'shydroelectricityand is the second biggest hydroelectricity producer in the world (2019).Because of this, Quebec has been described as a potentialclean energysuperpower.In 2019, Quebec's electricity production amounted to 214terawatt-hours (TWh), 95% of which comes from hydroelectric power stations, and 4.7% of which come fromwind energy.The public companyHydro-Québecoccupies a dominant position in the production, transmission and distribution of electricity in Quebec. Hydro-Québec operates 63 hydroelectric power stations and 28 large reservoirs.Because of the remoteness of Hydro-Québec'sTransÉnergiedivision, it operates the largest electricity transmission network in North America. Quebec stands out for its use ofrenewable energy.In 2008, electricity ranked as the main form of energy used in Quebec (41.6%), followed byoil(38.2%) andnatural gas(10.7%).In 2017, 47% of all energy came from renewable sources.The Quebec government's energy policy seeks to build, by 2030, alow carbon economy.

Quebec ranks among the top ten areas to do business in mining in the world.In 2011, themining industryaccounted for 6.3% of Quebec's GDPand it employed about 50,000 people in 158 companies.It has around 30 mines, 158 exploration companies and 15 primary processing industries. While many metallic and industrial minerals are exploited, the main ones are gold, iron, copper andzinc.Others include:titanium,asbestos,silver,magnesiumand nickel, among many others.Quebec is also as a major source of diamonds.Since 2002, Quebec has seen an increase in its mineral explorations. In 2003, the value of mineral exploitation reached $3.7 billion.

Theagri-food industryplays an important role in the economy of Quebec, with meat anddairy productsbeing the two main sectors. It accounts for 8% of the Quebec's GDP and generate $19.2 billion. In 2010, this industry generated 487,000 jobs in agriculture, fisheries, manufacturing of food, beverages and tobacco and food distribution.

Secondary sector

A mockup of theAirbus A220(formerly the Bombardier CSeries), originally developed byBombardier Aerospace

In 2021, Quebec'saerospace industryemployed 35,000 people and its sales totalled C$15.2 billion. Many aerospace companies are active here, includingCMC Electronics,Bombardier,Pratt & Whitney Canada,Héroux-Devtek,Rolls-Royce,General Electric,Bell Textron,L3Harris,Safran,SONACA,CAE Inc.,andAirbus,among others. Montreal is globally considered one of the aerospace industry's great centres, and several international aviation organisations seat here.Both Aéro Montréal and the CRIAQ were created to assist aerospace companies.

Thepulp and paper industryaccounted for 3.1% of Quebec's GDP in 2007and generated annual shipments valued at more than $14 billion.This industry employs 68,000 people in several regions of Quebec.It is also the main -and in some circumstances only- source of manufacturing activity in more than 250 municipalities in the province. The forest industry has slowed in recent years because of thesoftwood lumber dispute.In 2020, this industry represented 8% of Quebec's exports.

As Quebec has few significant deposits offossil fuels,allhydrocarbonsare imported.Refiners'sourcing strategies have varied over time and have depended on market conditions. In the 1990s, Quebec purchased much of its oil from theNorth Sea.Since 2015, it now consumes almost exclusively the crude produced inwestern Canadaand the United States.Quebec's two active refineries have a total capacity of 402,000 barrels per day, greater than local needs which stood at 365,000 barrels per day in 2018.

Thanks to hydroelectricity, Quebec is the world's fourth largestaluminumproducer and creates 90% of Canadian aluminum. Three companies make aluminum here:Rio Tinto,Alcoaand Aluminium Alouette. Their 9alumineriesproduce 2,9 million tons of aluminum annually and employ 30,000 workers.

Tertiary sector

Thefinance and insurancesector employs more than 168,000 people. Of this number, 78,000 are employed by the banking sector, 53,000 by the insurance sector and 20,000 by the securities and investment sector.TheBank of Montreal,founded in 1817 in Montreal, was Quebec's first bank but, like many other large banks, its central branch is now in Toronto. Several banks remain based in QuebecNational Bank of Canada,theDesjardins Groupand theLaurentian Bank.

TheChâteau Frontenacis the most photographed hotel in the world.

Thetourism industryis a major sector in Quebec. TheMinistry of Tourismensures the development of this industry under the commercial name "Bonjour Québec".Quebec is the second most important province for tourism in Canada, receiving 21.5% of tourists' spending (2021).The industry provides employment to over 400,000 people.These employees work in the more than 29,000 tourism-related businesses in Quebec, most of which are restaurants or hotels. 70% of tourism-related businesses are located in or close to Montreal or Quebec City. It is estimated that, in 2010, Quebec welcomed 25.8 million tourists. Of these, 76.1% came from Quebec, 12.2% from therest of Canada,7.7% from the United States and 4.1% from other countries. Annually, tourists spend more than $6.7 billion in Quebec's tourism industry.

Quebec'sITsector has 7,600 businesses and employs 140,000 people.Its most developed sectors aretelecommunications,multimedia and video game software, computer services, microelectronics, and the components sector. There are currently 115 telecommunications companies established in the province, includingMotorola,Ericssonand Mitec.The multimedia and video game sector has been growing fast since the early 2000s. The Digital Alliance, which claims 191 active members in video games, online education, mobility and Internet services, estimates the annual revenue of the sector at $827 million in 2014.The microelectronics sector is made up of more than 100 companies employing 13,000 people. Computer services, software development, and consulting engineering employ 60,000 skilled workers. While the largest IT employers areCMC Electronics,IBM,andMatrox,many other tech companies are present here, includingUbisoft,Electronic Arts,Microids,Strategy First,Eidos,Activision,A2M,Frima Studio,etc.

In 1969,Héroux-Devtekdesigned and manufactured theundercarriageof theApollo Lunar Module.

Approximately 1.1 million Quebecers work in the field of science and technology.In 2007, theGovernment of Quebeclaunched the Stratégie québécoise de la recherche et de l'innovation (SQRI) aiming to promote development through research, science and technology. The government hoped to create a strong culture of innovation in Quebec for the next decades and to create asustainable economy.

Quebec is considered one of world leaders infundamental scientific research,having produced tenNobel laureatesin either physics, chemistry, or medicine.It is also considered one of the world leaders in sectors such as aerospace, information technology, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, and therefore plays a significant role in the world's scientific and technological communities.Between 2000 and 2011, Quebec had over 9,469 scientific publications in biomedical research and engineering.The contribution of Quebec in science and technology represented approximately 1% of the research worldwide between the 1980s and 2009.

The province is one of the world leaders in the field ofspace scienceand contributed to important discoveries in this field.One of the most recent is the discovery of the complexextrasolar planetssystemHR 8799.HR 8799 is the first direct observation of an exoplanet in history.TheCanadian Space Agencywas established in Quebec due to its major role in this research field. A total of four Quebecers have been in space since the creation of the CSA:Marc Garneau,Julie Payette,andDavid Saint-Jacquesas CSA astronauts, plusGuy Lalibertéas a private citizen who paid for his trip. Quebec has also contributed to the creation of some Canadianartificial satellitesincludingSCISAT-1,ISIS,Radarsat-1andRadarsat-2.

Quebec ranks among the world leaders in the field oflife science.William Osler,Wilder Penfield,Donald Hebb,Brenda Milner,and others made significant discoveries in medicine,neuroscienceandpsychologywhile working atMcGill Universityin Montreal. Quebec has more than 450 biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies which together employ more than 25,000 people and 10,000 highly qualified researchers.Montreal is ranked fourth in North America for the number of jobs in the pharmaceutical sector.

Education

Main article:Education in Quebec

See also:List of universities in Quebec,List of colleges in Quebec,andList of schools in Quebec

The education system of Quebec, administered by the government of Quebec'sMinistry of Education and Higher Education,differs from those of other Canadian provinces. The province has five levels of education: firstpreschool, then primary school, then secondary school;thenCEGEP(seeCollege education in Quebec); and finallyuniversity or college.Attached to these levels are the options to also attendprofessional developmentopportunities,classes for adults,andcontinuing education.For every level of teaching, there exists a public network and private network: the public network is financed by taxes while the private options must be paid for by the student. In 2020,school boardswere replaced byschool service centres.

All universities in Quebec exist by virtue of laws adopted by theNational Assembly of Quebecin 1967 during theQuiet Revolution.Their financing mostly comes from public taxes, but the laws under which they operate grants them more autonomy than other levels of education.

Infrastructure

Transportation

Main articles:List of airports in Quebec,List of Quebec railways,andList of Quebec provincial highways

The ferry N.M.Camille-Marcoux,of theSociété des traversiers du Québec

Development and security of land transportation in Canada are provided byTransports Québec.Other organizations, such as theCanadian Coast GuardandNav Canada,provide the same service for the sea and air transportation. TheCommission des transports du Québecworks with the freight carriers and the public transport.

Theréseau routier québécois(Quebec road network) is managed by theSociété de l'assurance automobile du Québec(SAAQ; Quebec Automobile Insurance Corporation) and consists of about 185,000 km (115,000 mi) of highways and national, regional, local, collector and forest roads. In addition, Quebec has almost 12,000 bridges, tunnels, retaining walls, culverts and other structuressuch as theQuebec Bridge,theLaviolette Bridgeand theLouis-Hippolyte Lafontaine Bridge–Tunnel.

In the waters of the Saint Lawrence there are eight deep-water ports for the transhipment of goods. In 2003, 3886 cargo and 9.7 million tonnes of goods transited the Quebec portion of theSaint Lawrence Seaway.

Concerning rail transport, Quebec has 6,678 km (4,150 mi) of railwaysintegrated in the large North American network. Although primarily intended for the transport of goods through companies such as theCanadian National(CN) and theCanadian Pacific(CP), the Quebec railway network is also used by inter-city passengers viaVia Rail CanadaandAmtrak.In April 2012, plans were unveiled for the construction of an 800 km (497 mi) railway running north fromSept-Îles,to support mining and other resource extraction in the Labrador Trough.

Quebec's air network includes 43 airports that offer scheduled services on a daily basis.In addition, the Government of Quebec owns airports and heliports to increase the accessibility of local services to communities in theBasse-Côte-Nordand northern regions.

Various other transport networks crisscross the province of Quebec, including hiking trails, snowmobile trails and bike paths. TheGreen Roadis the largest at nearly 4,000 km (2,500 mi) in length.

Healthcare

Quebec has a health policy that emphasizes prevention, is based on the analysis of health-related data, and evolves with the needs of the population. Similar to other developed economies, the public health policies implemented in Quebec have extended the life expectancy of its population since the mid-20th century.

Health and social services are part of the same administration. The Quebec health system is also public, which means that thegovernmentacts as the main insurer and administrator, that funding is provided by general taxation, and that patients have access to care regardless of their income level.

There are 34 health establishments in Quebec, 22 of which are anIntegrated Health and Social Services Centre(CISSS). They ensure the distribution of different services on the territories they are assigned to. Quebec has approximately 140 hospitals for general or specialised care (CHSGS). Quebec also has other types of establishments in its healthcare system, such asCentre local de services communautaires(CLSC),Centre d'hébergement et de soins de longue durée(CHSLD),Centre de réadaptationandCentre de protection de l'enfance et de la jeunesse.Finally, there are private healthcare establishments (paid for directly by the patient) likeGroupe de médecine de famille,pharmacies, private clinics, dentists, community organisations and retirement homes.

A 2021 Ipsos poll found that 85% of Quebecers agree that their health care system is too bureaucratic to respond to the needs of the populationand in 2023 found that less than half of Quebecers are satisfied with the provincial health care system.

Housing

Main article:Housing crisis in Quebec

In 2021, 59.9% of Quebec's residents were property owners.In 2019, among property owners, 34% were couples with kids, 33% were couples without children, 22% lived alone, 8% were single parents, and 3% were something else. Among renters, 16% were couples with kids, 13% were couples without children, 51% lived alone, 13% were single parents, and 7% were something else.

Since the 1980s, the average price of a single-family home has doubled every 10 years, going from $48,715 in 1980 to $424,844 in 2021. Since the average salary did not follow these increases, Quebec homes are 10 times more expensive then they were 40 years ago.In 2022, the cities with the most severe housing shortages wereGranby,with a vacancy rate of 0,1%, followed byMarieville(0,1%),Rimouski(0,2%),Drummondville(0,2%) andRouyn-Noranda(0,3%).

Culture

Main article:Culture of Quebec

Quebec has developed its own unique culture from its historicNew Franceroots. Its culture also symbolizes a distinct perspective: being a French-speaking nation surrounded by a bigger English-speaking culture.

TheQuartier Latin(English: Latin Quarter) of Montreal, and Vieux-Québec (English:Old Quebec) in Quebec City are two hubs of metropolitan cultural activity. Life in the cafés and "terrasses" (outdoor restaurant terraces) reveals a Latin influence in Quebec's culture, with thethéâtre Saint-Denisin Montreal and theCapitole de Québectheatre in Quebec City being among the principal attractions.

A number of governmental and non-government organizations support cultural activity in Quebec. TheConseil des arts et des lettres du Québec(CALQ) is an initiative of theMinistry of Culture and Communications (Quebec).It supports creation, innovation, production, and international exhibits for all cultural fields of Quebec. TheSociété de développement des entreprises culturelles(SODEC) works to promote and fund individuals working in the cultural industry. ThePrix du Québecis an award given by the government to confer the highest distinction and honour to individuals demonstrating exceptional achievement in their respective cultural field. Other awards include the Athanase David Awards (Literature),Félix Awards(Music),Gémeaux Awards(Television and film),Jutra Awards(Cinema), Masques Awards (Theatre),Olivier GuimondAwards (Humour) and the Opus Awards (Concert music).

Performing arts

Main articles:Music of Quebec,Dance in Quebec,andComedy in Quebec

Traditional music is imbued with many dances, such as thejig,thequadrille,thereelandline dancing.Traditional instruments include harmonica,fiddle,spoons,jaw harpandaccordion.TheFirst Nationsand theInuitof Quebec also have their own traditional music. Quebec's most popular artists of the last century include the singersFélix Leclerc,Gilles Vigneault,Kate and Anna McGarrigleandCéline Dion.TheAssociation québécoise de l'industrie du disque, du spectacle et de la vidéo(ADISQ) was created in 1978 to promote the music industry in Quebec.TheOrchestre symphonique de Québecand theMontreal Symphony Orchestraare respectively associated with the Opéra de Québec and the Opéra de Montreal whose performances are presented at theGrand Théâtre de Québecand atPlace des Arts.TheBallets Jazz de Montreal,theGrands BalletsandLa La La Human Stepsare three important professional troupes ofcontemporary dance.

Among the theatre troupes are theCompagnie Jean-Duceppe,theThéâtre La Rubrique,and the Théâtre Le Grenier. In addition to the network of cultural centres in Quebec,the venues include theMonument-Nationaland theRideau Vert(green curtain) Theatre in Montreal, and theTridentTheatre inQuebec City.TheNational Theatre School of Canadaand theConservatoire de musique et d'art dramatique du Québecform the future players.

The showDralion,Cirque du Soleil, introduced in 2004

Several circus troupes were created in recent decades, the most important being theCirque du Soleil.Among these troops are contemporary, travelling and on-horseback circuses, such asLes 7 Doigts de la Main,Cirque Éloize,Cavalia,Kosmogonia,Sakaand CirqueAkya.TheNational Circus Schooland theÉcole de cirque de Québecwere created to train futureContemporary circusartists.Tohu, la Cité des Arts du Cirquewas founded in 2004 to disseminate the circus arts.

Comedy is a vastcultural sector.Quebec has created and is home to several different comedy festivals, including theJust for Laughsfestival in Montreal, as well as the Grand Rire festivals of Quebec, Gatineau and Sherbrooke.TheAssociation des professionnels de l'industrie de l'humour(APIH) is the main organization for the promotion and development of the cultural sector of humour in Quebec and theNational School of Humour,created in 1988, trains future humorists in Quebec.

Media

Main articles:Cinema of QuebecandTelevision in Quebec

TheCinémathèque québécoisehas a mandate to promote the film and television heritage of Quebec. TheNational Film Board of Canada(NFB), a federal Crown corporation, provides for the same mission in Canada. The Association of Film and Television in Quebec (APFTQ) promotes independent production in film and television.While the Association of Producers and Directors of Quebec (APDQ) represents the business of filmmaking and television, the Association of Community Radio Broadcasters of Quebec (ARCQ) (French acronym) represents the independent radio stations.Several movie theatres across Quebec ensure the dissemination of Quebec cinema. With its cinematic installations, such as theCité du cinémaandMel'sstudios, the city of Montreal is home to the filming of various productions.The state corporationTélé-Québec,the federal Crown corporationCBC,general and specialized private channels, networks, independent and community radio stations broadcast the variousQuebec téléromans,the national and regional news, and other programming.Les Rendez-vous du cinéma québécoisis a festival surrounding the ceremony of theJutra AwardsNight that rewards work and personalities of Quebec cinema.The Artis and theGemini Awardsgala recognize the personalities of television and radio industry in Quebec and French Canada. TheFilm Festival of the 3 Americas,theFestival of International Short Film,theWorld Film Festivaland theFestival of New Cinemaare other annual events surrounding the film industry in Quebec.

Popular comedy shows includeCré Basile, Le zoo du Capitaine Bonhomme, Lundi des Ha! Ha!, Démons du midi,La petite vie,Les Bougon,andLe sketch show.There are also many comedy and cartoon shows created for children, such asLa boîte à surprise,Bobino,Le pirate Maboule,Fanfreluche,La Ribouldingue, Les 100 Tours de Centour, Patofville,Passe-Partout,Robin et Stella,Iniminimagimo,Vazimolo, Télé-Pirate,Bibi et Geneviève,Watatatow,Caillou,Cornemuse, Macaroni tout garni,Toc toc toc,Ramdam,andTactik.

In the realm of literature and international publishing, theQuébec Éditiongroup is a committee created by the National Association of Book Editors dedicated to the international influence of French-language publishings from Quebec and Canada.

Literature and folklore

Main articles:Quebec literatureandFolklore of Quebec

Lachasse-galerie(1906) byHenri Julien,showing a scene from a popular Quebec folk legend.

Quebec's French-speaking populace has the second largest body of folktales in Canada (the first beingFirst Nations).When the early settlers arrived from France in the 17th century, they brought with them popular tales from their homeland, which were adapted to the local context. Many were passed on through generations byraconteurs,or storytellers.Almost all of the stories native to Quebec were influenced by Christiandogmaandsuperstitions.TheDevil,for instance, appears often as either a person, an animal or monster, or indirectly through Demonic acts.Various tales and stories are told through oral tradition, such as, among many others, the legends of theBogeyman,theChasse-galerie,theBlack Horse of Trois-Pistoles,theComplainte de Cadieux,theCorriveau,thedancing devil of Saint-Ambroise,theGiant Beaupré,themonsters of the lakesPohénégamookandMemphremagog,ofQuebec Bridge(called the Devil's Bridge), theRocher Percéand ofRose Latulipe,for example.

From New France, Quebec literature was first developed in the travel accounts of explorers. TheMoulin à parolestraces the great texts that have shaped the history of Quebec. The first to write the history of Quebec, since its discovery, was the historianFrançois-Xavier Garneau.ManyQuebec poetsand prominent authors marked their era and today remain anchored in the collective imagination, like, among others, Philippe Aubert de Gaspé,Octave Crémazie,Honoré Beaugrand,Émile Nelligan,Lionel Groulx,Gabrielle Roy,Hubert Aquin,Michel Tremblay,Marie Laberge,Fred Pellerin andGaston Miron.Theregional novelfrom Quebec is calledTerroirnovel and is a literary traditionspecific to the province.

Popular French-language contemporary writers includeLouis Caron,Suzanne Jacob,Yves Beauchemin,andGilles Archambault.Well-known English-language writers from Quebec includeLeonard Cohen,Mordecai Richler,andNeil Bissoondath.

Art and architecture

Main article:Architecture of Quebec

See also:List of art schools in Quebec

La CavalièrebyCharles Daudelin,1963, installed in front of the pavilion Gérard Morisset of the Quebec National Museum of Fine Arts inQuebec City

The art of Quebec has developed around the specific characteristics of its landscapes and cultural, historical, social and political representations. The development of Quebec masterpieces in painting, printmaking and sculpture is marked by the contribution of artists such asLouis-Philippe Hébert,Cornelius Krieghoff,Alfred Laliberté,Marc-Aurèle Fortin,Marc-Aurèle de Foy Suzor-Coté,Jean Paul Lemieux,Clarence Gagnon,Adrien Dufresne,Alfred Pellan,Jean-Philippe Dallaire,Charles Daudelin,Arthur Villeneuve,Jean-Paul Riopelle,Paul-Émile BorduasandMarcelle Ferron.

The fine arts of Quebec are displayed at theQuebec National Museum of Fine Arts,theMontreal Museum of Contemporary Art,theMontreal Museum of Fine Arts,the QuebecSalon des métiers d'artand in many art galleries. TheMontreal School of Fine Artsforms thepainters, printmakers and sculptors of Quebec.

Maison RouthierinSainte-Foy,aCanadien-style house

Quebec's architecture is characterized by its uniqueCanadien-style buildings as well as the juxtaposition of a variety of styles reflective of Quebec's history. When walking in any city or town, one can come across buildings with styles congruent toClassical,Neo-Gothic,Roman,Neo-Renaissance,Greek Revival,Neo-Classical,Québécois Neo-Classical,Victorian,Second Empire,Modern,Post-modernorSkyscrapers.

Canadien-style houses and barns were developed by the first settlers of New France along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River. These buildings are rectangular one-storey structures with an extremely tall and steep roof, sometimes almost twice as tall as the house below. Canadien-style churches also developed and served as landmarks while traversing rural Quebec.

Heritage

Main articles:Quebec Cultural Heritage DirectoryandBibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec

See also:List of museums in Quebec

Johan BeetzHouse,,aSecond Empire-inspiredrural residence atBaie-Johan-Beetz,Minganie

Several sites, houses and historical works reflect the cultural heritage of Quebec, such as theVillage Québécois d'Antan,the historical village ofVal-Jalbert,theFort Chambly,the national home of the Patriots, the Chicoutimi pulp mill (Pulperie de Chicoutimi), theLachine Canaland theVictoria Bridge.As of December 2011, there are 198National Historic Sites of Canadain Quebec.These sites were designated as being of national historic significance.

Various museums tell the cultural history of Quebec, like theMuseum of Civilization,theMuseum of French America,theMcCord Museumor the Montreal Museum of Archaeology and History inPointe-à-Callière,displaying artifacts, paintings and other remains from the past of Quebec. Notable schools include theConservatoire de musique et d'art dramatique du Québec,theÉcole nationale de théâtre du Canadaand theÉcole nationale de cirque.Notable public agencies to catalogue and further develop Quebec's culture include theBibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec,theConseil des arts et des lettres du QuébecandTélé-Québec.TheAssociation Quebecoise des Loisirs Folkloriquesis an organization committed to preserving and disseminating Quebec's folklore heritage.

Cuisine

Main article:Cuisine of Quebec

A classicpoutine

The traditional Quebecois cuisine descends from 16th-centuryFrench cuisine,thefur tradeand a history ofhunting.Quebec's cuisine has also been influenced by learning fromFirst Nation,byEnglish cuisineand byAmerican cuisine.Quebec is most famous for itstourtière,pâté chinois,poutine,andSt. Catherine's taffyamong others. "Le temps des sucres" is a period during springtime when many Quebecers go to thesugar shack(cabane à sucre) for a traditional meal.

Quebec is the world's biggestmaple syrupproducer.The province has a long history of producing maple syrup, and creating newmaple-derived products.Other major food products include beer, wine (includingice wineandice cider), and cheese.

Sports

TheMontreal Canadiensat theBell Centre

Sports in Quebec constitutes an essential dimension of Quebec culture.Ice hockeyremains the national sport. This sport was played for the first time on March 3, 1875, in Montreal and has been promoted over the years by numerous achievements, including the centenary of theMontreal Canadiens.Other major sports includeCanadian footballwith theMontreal Alouettes,soccer withClub de Foot Montréal,theGrand Prix du CanadaFormula 1 racing with drivers such asGilles VilleneuveandJacques Villeneuve,and professional baseball with the formerMontreal Expos.Quebec has hosted several major sporting events, including the1976 Summer Olympics,the Fencing World Championships in 1967, track cycling in 1974, and theTransat Québec-Saint-Malorace created in 1984.

Quebec athletes have performed well at theWinter Olympicsover recent years. They won 12 ofCanada's 29 medalsat the most recentWinter Olympics in Pyeongchang (2018);they won 12 of the27 Canadian medalsinSochi (2014);and 9 of the26 Canadian medalsinVancouver (2010).

Holidays and symbols

Main article:Symbols of Quebec

St-Jean-Baptiste Dayis one of Quebec's biggest holidays. In 1977, theQuebec Parliamentdeclared June 24, the day ofLa Saint-Jean-Baptiste,to beQuebec's National Holiday.La Saint-Jean-Baptiste,orLa St-Jean,honoursFrench Canada's patron saint,John the Baptist.On this day, the song "Gens du pays",byGilles Vigneault,is often heard. The songÀ la claire fontainewas the anthem of theNew France,PatriotsandFrench Canadian,then replaced byO Canada,but "Gens du pays" is preferred by many Quebecers to be the national anthem of Quebec.

National Patriots' Day,a statutory holiday in Quebec, is also a unique public holiday, which honours thepatrioteswith displays of thepatriote flag,music, public speeches, and ceremonies.Le Vieux de '37( "The Old Man of '37" ), an illustration byHenri Julienthat depicts a patriot of this rebellion,is sometimes added at the centre ofPatriote flags.Moving Dayis a tradition where leases terminate on July 1. This creates asocial phenomenonwhere everyone seems to be moving out at the same time.

Other distinct holiday traditions include theRéveillon,a giant feast and party which takes place duringChristmas EveandNew Year's Eveand goes on until midnight. Traditional dishes liketourtièreorcipâteare offered, andrigaudon,spoonorviolinmay be played.Finally,April Fools' Dayis calledPoisson d'Avril( "April's Fish" ) because while pulling pranks is still important, there is another major tradition: sticking fish-shaped paper cutouts to people's backs without them noticing.

In 1939, thegovernment of Quebecunilaterally ratified itscoat of armsto reflectQuebec's political history:French rule (gold lily on blue background), followed by British rule (lion on red background), followed by Canadian rule (maple leaves).Je me souviens( "I remember" ) is an official part of the coat of arms and has been the official licence plate motto since 1978, replacing the previous motto:La belle province( "the beautiful province" ), still used as a nickname for the province. Thefleur-de-lis,one of Quebec's most common symbols, is an ancient symbol of theFrench monarchy.Finally, theGreat Seal of Quebecis used to authenticate documents issued by the government of Quebec.

The first members of theSaint-Jean-Baptiste Societycreated theCarillon Sacré-Coeurflag, which consisted of a white cross on an azure background with white fleur-de-lis in each corner and aSacred Heartsurrounded bymaple leavesin the centre; it was based on the French merchant flag flown by Champlain and theFlag of Carillon.TheCarillon Sacré-Coeurand French merchant flag went on to be the major inspirations for creating Quebec's current flag in 1903, called theFleurdelisé.TheFleurdeliséreplaced theUnion Jackon Quebec'sParliament Buildingon January 21, 1948.

Emblems of Quebec

There are three official emblems in Quebec:

• Emblems
• 
  Iris versicolorFlower
• 
  Bubo scandiacus,Snowy owl
• 
  Betula alleghaniensisTree
• 
  Betula alleghaniensisBark

• Iris versicolorLinné. — Iris versicolore. — Clajeux. — (Larger blue-flag), the floral emblem of Quebec since 1999.

Through the variety and harmony of the colors of its flower, the versicolor iris perfectly illustrates the cultural diversity of Quebec. It also underlines the importance of water and wetlands for the balance of nature.

• Bubo scandiacus.— Harfang des neiges. — Snowy owl, the avian emblem of Quebec since 1987.

The owl symbolizes the whiteness of Quebec winters, roots in a semi-northern climate and extension over a very vast territory.

• Betula alleghaniensisBritton. — Bouleau des Alléghanys. — Merisier. — Yellow birch]], forest emblem 1993.

Colloquially calledMerisier,yellow birch, in addition to being one of the best-known noble woods in Quebec, is distinguished by the variety of its uses and by its commercial value. It was picked to emphasize the importance Québécois give to the forests.

• 
  St-Jean-Baptiste Daycelebrations at Maisonneuve park in Montréal
• 
  TheFleurdeliséflying atPlace d'Armesin Montreal

Quebec's diaspora

Main article:Quebec diaspora

The earliest immigrants to theCanadian prairieswereFrench Canadiansfrom Quebec. ManyFranco-Albertans,FransaskoisandFranco-Manitobansare descended from them.

From the mid-1800s to theGreat Depression,Quebec experienced theGrande Hémorragie( "Great Hemorrhaging" ), a massive emigration of 900,000 people from Quebec toNew England.French Canadians often established themselves inLittle Canadasin many industrial New England centres. Of the 900,000 Québécois who emigrated, about half returned.Most of the descendants of those who stayed are nowassimilated,though a fewFranco-Americansremain, speakingNew England French.

Some tried to slow the Grande Hémorragie by redirecting people north, which resulted in the founding of many regions in Quebec (ex.Saguenay-Lac-St-Jean,Val-d'Or) but also inNortheastern Ontario.The northeasternFranco-Ontariansof today, who live inTimmins,Hearst,MoosoneeandSault Sainte Marie,among others, are the descendants of emigrants from Quebec who worked in the mines of the area.

In recent times,snowbirdsoften migrate to southernFloridaduring the winter, resulting in the emergence of temporary "Québécois regions".

References

Sources

• Babin, Andrée (1986).L'interatlas: Ressources du Québec et du Canada.Centre éducatif et culturel.ISBN978-2-7617-0317-8.
• Brûlotte, Suzanne (2009).Les oiseaux du Québec.Éditions Broquet.ISBN978-2-89654-075-4.
• Brun, Henri; Tremblay, Guy; Brouillet, Eugénie (2008).Droit constitutionnel(5 ed.). Éditions Yvon Blais.OCLC233522214.
• Charpentier, Louise; Durocher, René; Laville, Christian; Linteau, Paul-André (1985).Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada.Éditions du Boréal Express.
• Dupont, Jean-Claude (2008).Légendes du Québec – Un héritage culturel.Les éditions GID.ISBN978-2-89634-023-1.
• Émond, André; Lauzière, Lucie (2003).Introduction à l'étude du droit.Wilson & Lafleur.OCLC52798925.
• Hunter, William A. (1999).Forts on the Pennsylvania Frontier, 1753–1758.Wennawoods.ISBN978-1-889037-20-2.
• Kélada, Henri (1970).Précis de droit québécois.Centre éducatif et culturel.OCLC17462972.
• Ministry of Environment of Quebec (2002).Water. Life. Future. National Policy on water(PDF).Government of Quebec.ISBN978-2-550-40074-5.
• Riendeau, Roger E. (2007).A brief history of Canada.Infobase Publishing.ISBN978-0-8160-6335-2.
• Whitmore, Johanne; Pineau, Pierre-Olivier (January 2020).État de llénergie au Québec 2020(PDF).HEC Montréal.

Further reading

English

• Anderson, Fred (2000).Crucible of Wars: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766.Knopf.ISBN978-0-375-40642-3.
• Bergeron, Léandre (1974).Why There Must Be a Revolution in Québec.New Canada Publications.ISBN0-919600-16-6.
• Cave, Alfred A. (2004).The French and Indian War.Greenwood Press.ISBN978-0-313-32168-9.
• Courville, Serge; Howard, Richard (2009).Quebec: A Historical Geography.UBC Press.ISBN978-0-7748-1426-3.
• Dickinson, John Alexander; Young, Brian J. (2003).A short history of Quebec.McGill-Queen's University Press.ISBN978-0-7735-2393-7.
• Gairdner, William D (1994).Constitutional Crack-up: Canada and the Coming Showdown with Québec.Stoddart Publishing Co.ISBN0-7737-5658-2.
• Gauvreau, Michael (2005).The Catholic origins of Quebec's Quiet Revolution, 1931–1970.McGill-Queen's University Press.ISBN978-0-7735-2874-1.
• Grenon, Jean-Yves (2000).Pierre Dugua De Mons: Founder of Acadie (1604–5), Co-Founder of Quebec (1608).Translated by Phil Roberts. Annapolis Royal, NS: Peninsular Press.ISBN978-0-9682016-2-6.
• Kokker, Steve (2002).Québec.Lonely Planet.ISBN978-1-74059-024-2.
• Lefkowitz, Arthur S. (2008).Benedict Arnold's Army: The 1775 American Invasion of Canada during the Revolutionary War.Savas Beatie.ISBN978-1-932714-03-6.
• Maclure, Jocelyn (2003).Quebec identity: the challenge of pluralism.McGill-Queen's University Press.ISBN978-0-7735-2553-5.
• McRoberts, Kenneth; Posgate, Dale (1984).Québec: Social Change and Political Crisis(Rev. and updated ed.). McClelland and Stewart.ISBN0-7710-7185-X.
• Merriam; Webster (2003).Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary(11th ed.). Merriam-Webster, Inc.ISBN978-0-87779-809-5.
• Roussopoulos, Dimitrios I, ed. (1974).Québec and Radical Social Change.Black Rose Books.ISBN0-919618-51-0.
• Scott, Colin (2001).Aboriginal autonomy and development in northern Quebec and Labrador.UBC Press.ISBN978-0-7748-0844-6.
• Taucar, Christopher Edward (2002).Canadian Federalism and Quebec Sovereignty.Peter Lang.ISBN978-0-8204-6242-4.
• Webb Hodge, Frederick (1912).American Indians North of Mexico, Volume 4, Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Handbook.Digital Scanning Inc.ISBN978-1-58218-751-8.

French

• Armony, Victor (2007).Le Québec expliqué aux immigrants.VLB Éditeur.ISBN978-2-89005-985-6.
• Bergeron, Léandre; Landry, Pierre (2008).Petit manuel d'histoire du Québec, 1534–2008.Éditions Trois-Pistoles.ISBN978-2-89583-183-9.
• Binot, Guy (2004).Pierre Dugua de Mons: gentilhomme royannais, premier colonisateur du Canada, lieutenant général de la Nouvelle-France de 1603 à 1612.Bonne anse.ISBN978-2-914463-13-3.
• Institut de la statistique du Québec (2010).Le Québec chiffres en main(PDF).Government of Quebec.ISBN978-2-550-49444-7.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on August 27, 2010.
• Lacoursière, Jacques; Provencher, Jean; Vaugeois, Denis (2000).Canada-Québec 1534–2000.Septentrion.ISBN978-2-89448-156-1.
• Lacoursière, Jacques (2005).Histoire du Québec, Des origines à nos jours.Édition Nouveau Monde.ISBN978-2-84736-113-1.
• La Rochelle, Louis (1982).En flagrant délit de pouvoir: chroniques des événements poliltiques, de Maurice Duplessis à René Lévesque.Boreal Express.ISBN2-89052-058-7.
• Liebel, Jean (1999).Pierre Dugua, sieur de Mons, fondateur de Québec.Le Croît vif.ISBN978-2-907967-48-8.
• Linteau, Paul-André (1989).Histoire du Québec contemporain; Volume 1; De la Confédération à la crise (1867–1929).Les Éditions du Boréal.ISBN978-2-89052-297-8.
• Linteau, Paul-André (1989).Histoire du Québec contemporain; Volume 2; Le Québec depuis 1930.Les Éditions du Boréal.ISBN978-2-89052-298-5.
• Morf, Gustave (1970).Le Terrorisme québécois.Éditions de l'Homme.
• Parizeau, Jacques (1997).Pour un Québec souverain.V.L.B. éditeur.ISBN2-89005-655-4.
• Pelletier, Réal, ed. (1975).Une Certaine Révolution tranquille: 22 juin [19]60–[19]75.La Presse.
• Venne, Michel (2006).L'annuaire du Québec 2007.Fides.ISBN978-2-7621-2746-1.

External links

• Official website of the Government of Quebec
• Quebec government official tourist site
• QuebecatCurlie