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Quintus Curtius Rufus

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For other uses, seeCurtius.
Quintus Curtius Rufus
Quintus Curtius Rufus. Historia Alexandri Magni. Leiden: Elzevier, 1664.
Quintus Curtius Rufus.Historia Alexandri Magni.Leiden: Elzevier, 1664.
OccupationHistorian
LanguageLatin
CitizenshipRoman Empire
Period1st century
GenresBiography,history
SubjectLife and times ofAlexander the Great
Literary movementSilver age of Latin literature
Notable workHistories of Alexander the Great
Qui. Curse En La Vie Alexand. Le Grand, illumination from manuscript located at theLaurentian LibraryofFlorence.

Quintus Curtius Rufus(/ˈkwɪntəsˈkɜːrʃiəsˈruːfəs/) was aRomanhistorian,probably of the 1st century, author of his only known and only surviving work,Historiae Alexandri Magni,"Histories of Alexander the Great",or more fullyHistoriarum Alexandri Magni Macedonis Libri Qui Supersunt,"All the Books That Survive of the Histories of Alexander the Great of Macedon." Much of it is missing. Apart from his name on the manuscripts, nothing else certain is known of him. This fact alone has led philologists to believe that he had another historical identity, to which, due to the accidents of time, the link has been broken. A few theories exist. They are treated with varying degrees of credibility by various authors. Meanwhile, the identity of Quintus Curtius Rufus, historian, is maintained separately.

The historicalalter ego[edit]

Curtius' work is uniquely isolated. No other ancient work refers to it, or as far as is known, to him.[1]Peter Pratt[a]pointing out that the Senate and emperors frequently proscribed or censored works, suggests that Curtius had not published the manuscript before his death, but left it in care of the emperor. The emperors intended to publish it posthumously but did not find a political opportunity. They had adopted the identity of Alexander for themselves. The provinces fashioned from the Macedonian Empire were difficult to govern, always on the point of rebellion. The work of Curtius, Pratt conjectures, was not politically appropriate because it would have encouraged independence.

The earliest opportune moment was the year 167, when the campaign of the emperorMarcus Aureliusagainst theParthian Empirehad failed, and the returning troops were in bad morale and infected with theAntonine Plague.The emperor attempted to build national pride among the former Macedonian states.Avidius Cassius,commandant ofLegio III Gallica,returning veterans, was promoted to Consul. He claimed descent from theSeleucidsof Macedonia. New coins and medals were issued in Macedonia on Alexandrian themes. Pratt conjectures that the manuscript in storage, by this time damaged and partly destroyed, was published finally, accounting for the previous lack of references to it. It is also possible Books I and II along with other loci were censored out. As the emperors probably had surmised, it was immediately popular.

Most credible date[edit]

Claudius

The dating available relies entirely on internal evidence, which is not certain but offers some degree of preponderance. In Book X Curtius digresses to give an encomium on blessings of peace under the empire, citing theRoman Empirewith the implication of contemporaneity.[2]In essence he reasserts the policy ofAugustus,which casts the empire as the restoration of monarchy for the suppression of the civil wars fomented by the contention of powerful noblemen vying for control of the Republic. Curtius' glowing endorsement of the policy dates him to the Roman Empire.

He also mentions theParthian Empire.It was formed by the easternsatrapiesrecusing themselves from Greek overlordship and restoring a purely Iranian empire. It defended itself successfully against Rome, even though Rome absorbed what was left of the Macedonian kingdoms. The dates of the Parthian Empire are 247 BC through 224 AD. Although Curtius may have been writing about an empire that vanished in his own day, the most straightforward approach assumes that he wrote in a window, 63 BC (start of the Roman Empire) through 224 AD.[3]

For further localization, the same imperialpurple passagecontrasts the civil wars of the Macedonians (Diadochi wars) due to failure to obtain a stable emperor, with an incident of the Roman Empire in which the risk of the civil war was avoided by the appointment of a new emperor in a single night. Not very many incidents fit the description. Baynham summarizes the argument of Julius Nützell that the crisis might be the night of 24/25 January, 41 AD, following the assassination ofCaligulaon that day. The Senate met on an emergency basis to debate whether theRoman Republicshould be restored. ThePraetorian Guardforced its way in to insist on the appointment of Caligula's uncle,Claudius.His reign concentrated on the restoration of the rule of law. A lawyer, he issued up to 20 imperial edicts per day, re-establishing thePax Romana.If this argument is correct, Curtius' work must be dated to after 41 AD.[4]

The upper limit is provided by a passage that mentions the "continued prosperity ofTyreunder Roman dominion. "[5]The peace of the empire came to an end in 43 AD when Claudius invaded Britain. None of these dates are certain, but the union of all the ranges presents a credible view of Curtius' date. Baynham says: "many modern scholars now accept a date in the middle to late part of the first century A.D. as a likely floruit for Curtius."[6]

Most credible identity[edit]

By his name, Quintus Curtius Rufus was a member of theCurtii Rufibranch of theCurtii family,one of the original nobility of Rome. Due to the frequently used institution ofadoption,people of the nameCurtius(or femaleCurtia) might not beconsanguineous.Moreover, the same name tended to be repeated, typically from grandfather to grandson. After centuries ofCurtii,aCurtiusmight turn up in history at any location or in any period.

The candidates for the historical identity of the author are but few. Given the time frame of the mid-1st century, however, there is a credible candidate. He is a certainCurtius Rufus(Thepraenomenhas been omitted. Presumably it is Quintus.) In theList of Roman consulshe served asConsul Suffectusfor October through December, 43 AD under the emperorClaudius.He had been a protégé ofTiberius.[7]

He must have written theHistoriesin a year or two before the consulship.Tacitussays that he was on the staff of theQuaestorof Africa during that time, which would have given him the opportunity to use theLibrary of Alexandria.[8]Tiberiushad died in 37;Caligulawas emperor then. Curtius' relations with Caligula are not mentioned. But Caligula was not in his vicinity.

On Curtius' return, a book such as theHistoriaeunless politically incorrect would have impressed the scholarly Claudius. Tiberius already had been an admirer before the book: he said that Curtius Rufus was his own ancestor; i.e., aself-made man.Tacitus hints that Curtius was of low birth, possibly the son of a gladiator. The story is only compatible with the name if one assumes adoption, which Tiberius could easily have arranged,

If Curtius took office at the minimum age of 25, and Tiberius made his comment in the year of his own death, Curtius would have been 19 or younger when described as a self-made man. In an age when Alexander had become regent of Macedon at 16, a rise to fame at 19, and consulship at 25, would not have been incredible. Tiberius would have been a senior emperor when Curtius came to his attention. What his qualifications were for the patronage remain obscure. If, on the other hand, Quintus Curtius Rufus is to be identified withCurtius Rufus,Consul Suffect of 43, then the most likely circumstantial evidence places his birth in the early years of the 1st century, in the reign of Augustus.[9]

TheHistoriae[edit]

Main article:Histories of Alexander the Great

Manuscripts and editions[edit]

Historiaesurvives in 123codices,or boundmanuscripts,all deriving from an original in the 9th century. As it was a partial text, already missing large pieces, they are partial as well. They vary in condition. Some are more partial than others, withlacunaethat developed since the 9th century. The original contained tenlibri,"books," equivalent to our chapters. Book I and II are missing, along with any Introduction that might have been expected according to ancient custom. There are gaps in V, VI, and X. Manyloci,or "places," throughout are obscure, subject to interpretation or emendation in the name of restoration.[10]

The work enjoyed popularity in theHigh Middle Ages.It is the main source for a genre of tales termed theAlexander Romance(some say romances); for example,Walter of Chatillon's epic poemAlexandreis,which was written in the style ofVirgil'sAeneid.These romances spilled over intothe Renaissance,especially of Italy, where Curtius was idolized.[11]Painters, such asPaolo VeroneseandCharles Le Brun,painted scenes from Curtius.

TheEditio Princeps,or first printed edition, was published in 1470 or 1471 at Venice by Vindelinus Spirensis. A slow but steady stream of editions appeared subsequently until more of a need for standardization was perceived. In 1867 Edmund Hedicke instigated a convention that persists yet. He based his edition of that year on the five best manuscripts.[12]

The vulgate authors[edit]

In what remains of his work, Curtius mainly does not identify sources. They were, perhaps, stated in the missing books. Speculations of what they were based on thorough analysis of the content and style vary widely. Yardley and Heckel say: "The internal evidence for Curtius' sources is disappointing."[13]He does, however, mentionCleitarchus,a historian in camp, twice,[14]Ptolemyonce, andTimagenesonce. These men were participants in the Alexander story and therefore are counted as eyewitnesses, orprimary sources.All accounts based on them are by analogy also termed "primary."[15]These works are also called "the Vulgate."

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^(Pratt 1809,pp. xvi–xxi): The lesser-known Pratt was a clerk in the library ofEast India House.His employment was to research and publish documents on the East Indies trade. He expanded that process into writing universal history books, such as theHistory of Japan.He did some writing to gratify his own interests, such as the translation of Curtius, which reveals the depth of his education and research. He remained so unself-confident that he did not put his name on the work. In the Preface, he begins one footnote with "As a stranger to antiquarian studies, I hesitate to point out...." He was certainly no stranger. The book received professional reviews, becoming popular.

Citations[edit]

  1. ^Baynham 1998,p. 2.
  2. ^Chapter 9, 1-6.
  3. ^Baynham 1998,p. 7.
  4. ^Baynham 1998,pp. 205–207.
  5. ^Curtius 1896,p. xii On Book IV, Chapter 4, 21.
  6. ^Baynham 1998,p. 8.
  7. ^Yardley 2009,pp. 9–14.
  8. ^Annales,Book XI, Section 21.
  9. ^Hamilton 1988.
  10. ^Baynham 1998,p. 1.
  11. ^Baynham 1998,p. 3.
  12. ^Baynham 1998,pp. 3–4. They are B for Bernensis, F for Florentinus, L for Leidensis, P for Parisinus, and V for Vosianus.
  13. ^Heckel 2004,Introduction: C. Curtius' Sources and Models.
  14. ^9.5.21, 9.18.15.
  15. ^Yardley 2009,p. 1 identifies five: Curtius,Diodorus SiculusBook 17;Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus,"Philippic History," Books 11-12 (in epitome byJustin);Arrian,Anabasis Alexandri,andPlutarch,"Life of Alexander."

Sources[edit]

  • Baynham, Elizabeth (1998).Alexander the Great: The Unique History of Quintus Curtius.Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press.
  • Curtius, Rufus Quintus (1896). Humphreys, Willard (ed.).Selections from the History of Alexander the Great.Boston: Ginn & Co.
  • Hamilton, J.R. (1988). "The Date of Quintus Curtius Rufus".Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte.Bd. 37: 445–456.
  • Heckel, Waldemar, ed. (2004) [First published 1984].Quintus Curtius Rufus: The History of Alexander.Penguin Classics. Translated by Yardley, J.C. London:Penguin Books.ISBN978-014044412-4.
  • Lucarini, Carlo M. (2009).Q. Curtius Rufus: Historiae.Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana (in Latin). Berolini [Berlin]; Novi Eboraci [New York]: Walter De Gruyter.
  • Pratt, P. (1809).The History of the Life and Reign of Alexander the Great.Vol. I. London: Samuel Bagster.
  • Rolfe, John C. (1971) [First published 1946].Quintus Curtius, with an English Translation.Vol. I, Books I-V. Cambridge; London:Harvard University Press;William Heinemann.
  • Yardley, J.C. (2009).Curtius Rufus, Histories of Alexander the Great, Book 10.Clarendon Ancient History Series. Introduction and historical commentary by J. E. Atkinson. Oxford; New York:Oxford University Press.ISBN978-019955763-9.

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

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