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Racism in Russia

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RacisminRussia(Russian:Pacизм в Pоссии) mainly appears in the form of negative attitudes towards non-ethnic Russian citizens, immigrants or tourists and negative actions against them by someRussians.Traditionally, Russian racism includesantisemitismandTatarophobia,as well as hostility towards the variouspeoples of the Caucasus,Central Asia,East AsiaandAfrica.[1]

According to the United Nations, Russia'simmigrant populationis the world's third-largest, numbering over 11.6 million.[2]Due to the country's declining population, and the lowbirth ratesand highdeath ratesof ethnic Russians, theRussian governmenthas tried to increase immigration to the country in the last decade;[3]which has led to millions of migrants flow into Russia from mainlypost-Soviet states,many of whom are illegal and remain undocumented.[4][5][6]

Under serious police pressure, the number of racist acts started to decline in Russia from 2009.[7]In 2016, it was reported that Russia had seen an “impressive" decrease in hate crimes.[8]

Xenophobia[edit]

Main articles:Antisemitism in the Soviet UnionandAntisemitism in Russia
Further information:History of the Jews in the Soviet UnionandHistory of the Jews in Russia
An antisemitic demonstration in Russia, with posters claiming "president Putin is with the Jews".

In the late 19th century, especially after nationalistic uprisings occurred in Poland, the government expressedxenophobiain its hostility towards ethnic minorities which did not speakRussian.The government decided to reduce the use of other languages, and it insisted that minorities which did not speak Russian should beRussified.[9]

By the beginning of the 20th century, mostEuropean Jewslived in the so-calledPale of Settlement,the Western frontier of theRussian Empirewhich generally consisted of the modern-day countries ofPoland,Lithuania,Belarusand neighboring regions. Many pogroms accompanied theRevolution of 1917and the ensuingcivil war,an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 Jewish civilians were killed in atrocities which were committed throughout the formerRussian Empire;the number of Jewish orphans exceeded 300,000.[10][11]

In the 2000s, tens of thousands of people joinedneo-Nazigroups inside Russia.[12]Racism against both the Russian citizens (peoples of the Caucasus,Indigenous peoples of Siberiaand Russian Far East, etc.) and non-Russian citizens of Africans, Central Asians, East Asians (Vietnamese, Chinese, etc.) and Europeans (Ukrainians, etc.) is a significant problem.[13]

In 2016,Radio Free Europe/Radio Libertyreported that "Researchers who track xenophobia in Russia have recorded an" impressive "decrease in hate crimes because the authorities appear to have stepped up pressure onfar-rightgroups ".[14]

Using information which was collected during surveys which were conducted in 1996, 2004, and 2012, Hannah S. Chapman, et al. reports a steady increase in Russians' negative attitudes towards seven outgroups. Muscovites especially became more xenophobic.[15]

Public sentiments and politics[edit]

Number of racist attacks victims according toSOVA Center
Year Deaths Injuries
2004[16] 46 208
2005[17] 47 461
2006[18] 62 564
2007[19] 85 605
2008[20] 109 486
2009[21] 84 434
2010[21] 38 377
2011[22] 20 130
2012[22] 18 171
2013[23] 20 173
2014[24] 19 103
2015[25] 9 68
2016[26] 7 69
2017[27] 4 64
2018[28] 4 52
Total 572 3965
4537
Survey byLevada Centerin which participants are asked if they agree with the phrase "Russia for Russians."[29][30]

In 2006,Amnesty Internationalreported that racism in Russia was "out of control."[31]Russia also has one of the highest immigration rates inEastern Europe.[32]

Between 2004 and 2008, there were more than 350 racist murders, and Verkhovsky, the leader of the anti-racist SOVA organization, estimated that around 50% of Russians thought that ethnic minorities should be expelled from their region.Vladimir Putinmeanwhile was deeply critical of the view thatRussia should be "for ethnic Russians",citing the need to maintain harmony in a multiethnic federation. Western commentators have noted that during this period, racist and ultranationalist groups may have been the most significant right-wing opposition to Putin's government.[33]

On 20 April 2011, Konstantin Poltoranin, spokesman forFederal Migratory Service,was fired after saying the "survival of the white race was at stake."[34]

On 24 October 2013, speaking during thePoedinokprogramme on theRossia 1television channel, the leader of Russia's extreme nationalistLiberal Democratic Party of Russia,Vladimir Zhirinovsky,known for his headline-grabbing outbursts, called for imposing limits on the birth rate in the Muslim-dominated North Caucasus region of Russia, and restricting the movement of people from that region across the country. These outbursts occurred shortly after the terrorist attack inVolgograd,which left several Russians dead. Zhirinovsky later apologized for his words.[35] During the programme, there was a live population poll conducted via text messaging and the internet. Zhirinovsky won that popular vote, with over 140 thousand Russians voting in favour of him.[36]Some Russian nationalists believe the best way to stop the uptick in Muslim migration is by using oppressive tactics to "stem the tide". In 2006, in the town ofKondopoga,Karelian republic, a brawl in a café involving Chechen migrants and local Russians turned into amassive riot that lasted for several days.[37]

Publishers and periodicals[edit]

Literature of a neopagan,[38]racist,[39]antisemitic,andanti-Christiannature is published by the Moscow publishing houseRusskaya Pravda,officially registered in 1994, founded by the neopagan publicist Alexander Aratov[40](Ogneved).[38][41]The publishing house aims to "publish and distribute literature onAryan-Slavic-Russian issues. "[42]Mainly, it publishes the newspaperRusskaya Pravda.The publishers of Russkaya Pravda advertisedAlexey Dobrovolsky (Dobroslav),one of the founders ofRussian neopaganism.[43]

In 1997,Valery Yemelyanov,one of the founders of Russian neopaganism, along with a small number of followers, joined Aratov's small movement and became editor-in-chief of the Russkaya Pravda newspaper.[42]Since 1997, theRusskaya Pravdapublishing house, represented by Aratov, has formed, together with the Kaluga Slavic community and other groups, the core of the large neopagan associationSSO SRV.[38]In the fall of 2001, some former leaders of thePeople's National PartyandRussian National Unity,as well as the editors of theRusskaya Pravdanewspaper, united to create the National Power Party of Russia.[38]HistorianVictor Schnirelmanncharacterizes the publishing house and the newspaperRusskaya Pravdaas antisemitic.[40][38]

TheBelye Alvypublishing house publishes racist literature.[44]In St. Petersburg, the books of theBelye Alvypublishing house were distributed by the newspaperZa Russkoye Delo.[45]St. Petersburg human rights activists Ruslan Linkov and Yuri Vdovin have repeatedly appealed to the authorities with a demand to check the facts of the publication of "all kinds of Nazi literature" by the publishing houseBelye Alvy.[46][47]

In 1999, Vladimir Avdeyev (the creator of the doctrine of "racology" about thesuperiority of the Nordic race) started a series of books called the "Library of Racial Thought" by theBelye Alvypublishing house, under the heading of which he published the works of Russianracial theoristsand classics of Western racial theory; in particular, he republished well-known racist writings of the beginning of the 20th century, such asLudwig Woltmann'sPolitical Anthropologyand the works ofHans F. K. Günther,a propagandist of racial anthropology during the Nazi period.[48]

The founder of the bandDK,Sergei Zharikov, wrote about the unconditionally pagan nature of rock culture and supported the national idea and messianism. Referencing the works of academicianBoris Rybakov,he argued that the pagan ideology is most suitable for the struggle for the independence of the Russian land. Zharikov became the publisher of the neo-Nazi magazineAttack,which pays great attention to neopagan ideas.[38]

Over the years, thefascistnewspaperRussian Revansh,the neo-Nazi newspaperZemshchina,and the racist magazineHeritage of Ancestorshave been published.[48]TheKnizhny Mirpublishing house disseminates racial ideas.[44]

Targeted groups[edit]

Africans[edit]

See also:Afro-Russian

Official attitudes towardsAfrican peoplewere nominally neutral during theSoviet Union,because of itsinternationalistagenda.[49]As a part of its support ofdecolonization of Africa,the Soviet Union offered free education for selected citizens of African states.[50]However, once in the Soviet Union, these students experienced everyday racism directed at them from all classes of society. In 1963, Moscow was the site ofspontaneous protestswhich saw African students protest the murder of a black man, who was killed by a family of a Russian woman he was dating.[51][52][53]

In 2006, some exchange students claimed that "monkey" insults were so frequent that students ceased reporting them.[54]

In 2010,Jean Sagbobecame the first black man in Russia to be elected to government. He is a municipal councillor in the village of Novozavidovo, 100 kilometres (62 mi) north of Moscow.[citation needed]

In 2013, Member ofDumaIrina Rodninahas publicly posted a picture showing Obama with a banana on Twitter.[55]

ATatarowned supermarket inTatarstansold calendars with images of American president Obama depicted as a monkey and initially refused to apologize for selling the calendar.[56][57]They were then forced to issue an apology later.[58]

In mid-2016, after tensions rose between the US and Russia, a Tatarstan ice cream factory produced "Obamka" (little Obama) ice cream with packaging showing a black child wearing an earring; the move was seen as an illustration of bothanti-Americanismin Russia and enduring, Soviet-era racism in the country.[59][60][61]The company, which stated that the ice cream was not intended to be political, halted production of the line shortly after the controversy arose.[62]

Crimean Tatars[edit]

See also:TatarophobiaandDeportation of the Crimean Tatars

Discrimination against Crimean Tatars was state-enforced during the Soviet era through the racially-basedspecial settlementsystem, which confined the deported Crimean Tatar nation in small perimeters within Central Asia and theMari ASSRand deprived them of a variety of civil liberties that other peoples had.[63][64]While no longer officially a state-mandated institution, prejudice and negative attitudes against Crimean Tatars remain pervasive throughout government and society; a notable example being when Russian consul Vladimir Andreev demanded that none of the invited Russian citizens attend the debut ofHaytarma,a film about Crimean Tatar twice Hero of the Soviet UnionAmet-khan Sultan,claiming that the film could not possibly be accurate because it was directed by a Crimean Tatar.[65]

Peoples of the Caucasus[edit]

In Russia, the word "Caucasian" is a collective term referring to anyone descended from the native ethnic groups of theCaucasus.In Russian slang,Peoples of the Caucasusare calledblack;this name-calling comes from their relatively darker features.[66][67]Since thedissolution of the Soviet Union,the rise of theMuslim population in Russiaand theSecond Chechen War,manyRussian radical nationalistshave associatedIslamandMuslimswithterrorismand domestic crimes.[68]In 2010Julia Ioffewrote that this was similar to stereotyping faced byItalian Americansin historical eras.[69]

On 21 April 2001, there was apogromin a market in Moscow'sYasenevo Districtagainst merchants from the Caucasus.[70]Ethnically motivated attacks againstArmenians in Russiahave grown so common that the president ofArmenia,Robert Kocharyan,raised the issue with high-ranking Russian officials.[71]In September 2006, major ethnic tensions between Russians and Caucasians took place inKondopoga.[72]In 2006, the crisis inGeorgia–Russia relationsresulted in thedeportation of Georgians from Russia.[73]The Russian side explained the process as law enforcement towardsillegal immigrants,whereas the Georgian government accused Russia ofethnic cleansing.[74]TheEuropean Court of Human Rightsconcluded that the detention and collective expulsion of Georgian nationals in 2006 violated theEuropean Convention of Human Rightsand ruled, in 2019, that Russia had to pay 10 million Euros in compensation.[75]

In December 2010, there was a massive outbreak of hostility towards Caucasians, culminating in nationalist protests atManezhnaya Square in Moscowand in other cities.[76]The trigger was themurder of Egor Sviridov,a Russianassociation footballfan, in a street fight on 6 December.[77]On 11 December, thousands of nationalist rioters, outside theMoscow Kremlinbuilding, screamed racist phrases, cried for a "Russia for Russians"and a" Moscow for Muscovites, "attacked Caucasians and other minority groups who passed by, and some – including children as young as fourteen – made theNazi salute.[78]The next day, a similar riot was held inRostov-on-Don,and afterwards, the city's government banned Caucasians from performingLezginka,their traditional dance, in the city.[79]Later, the police chief in Moscow said that civil liberties were a hindrance in security and that migration should be restricted.[80]Vladimir Kvachkov,a majorRussian nationalistleader of the organization People's Liberation Front of Russia (which says its major goal is to "free" Russia from Caucasian and Hebrew "occupiers" ), made the following statement: "We Russian nationalists, the initiators of the people's front, we are telling you that the events of 11 December are the beginning of the revolutionary changes in Russia, the first outbursts of the approaching Russian revolution... You are the ones who can participate in it."[78]

People of Central Asia[edit]

In 2016,Kyrgyzstan's PresidentAlmazbek Atambayevurged Russians to show respect to his countrymen after an assault on two migrants in Moscow.[81]Racial discrimination of work-migrants from Central Asians (calledgastarbeiters,rus. гастарбайтеры) became a systematic norm after the fall of the Soviet Union.[82]

Jews[edit]

Main article:Antisemitism in Russia
See also:History of the Jews in Russia,Antisemitism in the Russian Empire,History of the Jews in the Soviet Union,andAntisemitism in the Soviet Union

On 11 January 2006,Alexander Koptsevburst intoBolshaya Bronnaya SynagogueinMoscowand stabbed eight people with a knife.[83]In March, he was sentenced to 13 years in prison.[84]In 2008, allegations ofblood libelappeared in posters inNovosibirsk.[85]TheFederation of Jewish Communities of Russiaexpressed their concern about a rising number of attacks targetingJews,calling it part of "a recent surge in anti-Semitic manifestations" inRussia.[86]

In 2019, Ilya Yablogov wrote that many Russians were keen on antisemitic conspiracy theories in 1990s but it declined after 2000 and many high-ranking officials were forced to apologize for the antisemitic behavior.[87]

The 2019Pew Researchpoll found that 18% of Russians held unfavorable views of Jews, dropping from 34% in 2009.[88]

Yakuts[edit]

Sergey Nikolaev, a 46-year-old man from the Sakha (Yakutia) Republic, was brutally murdered by a group of racist youths after a soccer match who were targeting people who didn't look like an ethnic Russian. Nikolaev, with a Eurasian complexion, lost his life at the scene. Despite numerous witnesses, no one intervened or alerted the police for 30 minutes. Russian society grapples with the escalating violence fueled by ethnic hatred.[89]

Vietnamese[edit]

Main article:Anti-Vietnamese sentiment

In October 2004 Russian skinheads stabbed and beat a Vietnamese student named Vu Anh Tuan, killing him.[90][91][92][93][94]Vu Anh Tuan was 20 years old when he was killed in St. Petersburg. In October 2006 the 17 skinheads who were on trial for his murder were acquitted by a court.[95]

A protest was held by 100 Vietnamese against the murder of Vu Anh Tuan, and a protestor said "We came to study in this country, which we thought was a friend of Vietnam. We do not have drunken fights, we do not steal, we do not sell drugs and we have the right to protection from bandits".[96][97]

In Moscow on 25 December 2004 a crowd of people used clubs and knives to attack 2 Vietnamese students at the Moscow Energy Institute, Nguyen Tuan Anh and Nguyen Hoang Anh and they suffered severe injuries and were hospitalized.[98][99][100][101][102][103]

In 2005 in Moscow, three Russians stabbed a 45-year-old Vietnamese man named Quan to death.[104][105]

In Moscow onFestivalnaya Street[ru]in 2008 a group of young men stabbed a 35-year-old Vietnamese woman, who later died of her wounds.[106]

On 9 January 2009 a group of strangers in Moscow stabbed a Vietnamese student named Tang Quoc Binh who was 21 years old and the wounds were fatal resulting in his death on 10 January.[107]

Amid hostility towards migrant workers, around 600 Vietnamese were rounded up in Moscow and placed in tents while waiting to be deported from Russia in August 2013.

Non-ethnic Russians[edit]

In Moscow's challenging housing market, discrimination against ethnic minorities is prevalent, despite laws prohibiting such practices. A data journalism project, Robustory, analyzed 35,796 property listings on Cian.ru in April 2017, revealing that approximately 16 percent, or 5,780 ads, discriminated based on ethnicity or nationality. The Severny district emerged as the most discriminatory, with 58 percent of landlords specifying Slavic origins for tenants.[108]

Association football[edit]

See also:Racism in association football
Playing for a Russian team,Roberto Carloswas twice faced with racial abuse on the field.

After it was announced that Russia will host2018 FIFA World Cup,a head ofUEFAFARE Monitoring Centre, Dr.Rafał Pankowski,accused theRussian Football Unionof downplaying racist chants in stadiums, saying: "Nazi slogans are common in many Russian stadiums. Matches are often interrupted with racist chants aimed at black players."[109]More than 100 incidents took place 2012–2014.[110]

CameroonianplayerAndré Amougouconstantly suffered racism while playing forLokomotiv Moscow.[111]AsZenit Saint Petersburgkicked off their2006/2007 Russian Premier Leaguecampaign against visitorsSaturn Moscow Oblast,Brazilian footballerAntônio Géderwas received with a chorus ofmonkey chantsatPetrovsky Stadium.[112]In March 2008, black players of French sideMarseille— includingAndré Ayew,Charles KaboréandRonald Zubar— were targeted byultrasof Zenit Saint Petersburg.[113]Zenit ultras were later warned by police inManchesternot to repeat their behaviour ahead of the2008 UEFA Cup Final.[114]Zenit's coachDick Advocaatrevealed that when they attempted to signMathieu Valbuena,a Frenchman, many fans asked "Is he a negro?"[115]AlsoSerge Branco,who played forKrylia Sovetov Samara,accused Zenit's staff of racism, saying: "Each time I play in St Petersburg I have to listen to racist insults from the stands. Zenit Boss es do not do anything about it which makes me think they are racists too."[116]On 20 August 2010,Peter Odemwingieof Lokomotiv Moscow signed a 3-year contract withPremier LeagueteamWest Bromwich Albion.[117]Later, photographs showed Lokomotiv Moscow fans celebrating the sale of Odemwingie through the use of racist banners, including the image of a banana with the text "Thanks West Brom".[118]

On 21 March 2011, during a game away at Zenit Saint Petersburg, a banana was held by one of the fans nearRoberto Carlosof Russian Premier League clubAnzhi Makhachkalaas the footballer was taking part in a flag-raising ceremony.[119]In June, in a match away at Krylia Sovetov Samara, Roberto Carlos received a pass from the goalkeeper and was about to pass it when a banana was thrown onto the pitch, landing nearby.[citation needed]

Lokomotiv Moscow was involved in another incident on 18 March 2012, when a banana was thrown atAnzhi MakhachkaladefenderChristopher Sambaduring at a match at theLokomotiv Stadium.[120]

In October 2013, during the second half of the match, betweenManchester CityandPFC CSKA Moscow,Yaya Touré,a star midfielder for City fromIvory Coast,walked up to the referee, Ovidiu Hategan, and angrily pointed at CSKA fans making monkey chants and shouting abuse toward him and his black teammates. The game continued and, according to Touré, so did the abuse.[121]

Environmental racism[edit]

This section is an excerpt fromEnvironmental racism in Russia.[edit]

Environmental racismis a form ofinstitutional racism,which has led to the disproportionate disposal of hazardous waste in communities of colour in Russia.[122][123]It also results in indigenous people disproportionately bearing the environmental burdens of mining, and oil or gas extraction. In Russia, there are 47 officially recognized indigenous groups, who have had some rights to consultation and participation under Russian law since 1999. However, these guarantees have steadily eroded with the re-centralization of state control, and several indigenous autonomous territories have been abolished since the 1990s.[124]

Russia, anInternational Labor Organizationmember, has not ratified ILO 69, an agreement that explicitly asserts the right toself-determinationfor all indigenous peoples. This allows the Russian Federation to continue to deny Indigenous peoples' control over their land and resources. Russia is also a member of theUnited Nations,which recognizes indigenous peoples of classically colonized lands, but is somewhat vague about indigenous minorities who are not separated from their colonizers by an ocean. This is one of the arguments Russia uses to justify not complying with UN treaties in the case of the indigenous peoples of Siberia.

Environmental racismin Russia also affects Romani people and migrant workers.

Notable hate crimes[edit]

On 9 February 2004, a group ofneo-Nazi skinheadsstabbed a nine-year-oldTajikgirl, Khursheda Sultanova, to death inSaint Petersburg.[125]In 2006, the Saint Petersburg Agency for Journalistic Investigations revealed the fact that the suspected perpetrators of thehate crimewere members of the "Mad Crowd" gang.[126]

On 14 June 2011, the Saint Petersburg City Court sentenced 12 members of the gang which was led by Alexei Voevodin and Artyom Prokhorenko for their roles in dozens of racist attacks.[127]

On 15 December 2008,Artur RynoandPavel Skachevskywere sentenced to penal labour for 10 years each for the murder of 19 foreigners.[128]They were placed on thelist of people banned from entering the United Kingdom,remaining the only Russians on the list. The reason given is that they are "Leaders of a violent gang that beat migrants and posted films of their attacks on the internet. Considered to be engaging in unacceptable behaviour by fomenting serious criminal activity and seeking to provoke others to serious criminal acts."[129]A judge who conducted the trial, Eduard Chuvashov, was gunned down on 12 April 2010, four days after he added two years to the 20-year prison sentence of a member of their gang.[130]

Murder of anti-fascist activists[edit]

  • On 19 June 2004,Nikolai Girenko,a prominent ethnologist and a prominent adviser in 15 ethnichate crimestrials, was shot to death in hisSaint Petersburgapartment.[131]On 14 June 2011, members ofneo-Nazigang Mad Crowd were sentenced to jail for a number of killings including Girenko.[127]
  • On 13 November 2005, themurder of Timur Kacharava,a Russiananti-fascistof Georgian descent, took place.[132]On 7 August 2007, Alexander Shabalin was sentenced to 12 years in prison for his murder.[133]
  • On 19 January 2009, while leaving a news conference, a human rights lawyer and journalistStanislav Markelovwas gunned down inMoscow.[134]Anastasia Baburova,a journalist forNovaya Gazetawho tried to come to Markelov's assistance, was also shot and killed in the attack.[135]On 6 May 2011, the court sentenced tworadical nationalists,Nikita Tikhonov and his girlfriend Yevgenia Khasis, to life imprisonment and 18 years in prison, respectively.[136]
  • On 16 November 2009,Ivan Khutorskoy,formerpunksinger and head of security for anti-fascist shows, was killed in a suburb of Moscow.[137]He was known for organizingself-defenseclasses foranti-fascistindividuals and he was also known for providing security at press conferences which were held by Stanislav Markelov.[138]

Cherkizovsky Market bombing[edit]

Main article:2006 Moscow market bombing

On 21 August 2006, ahome-made bomb explodedinMoscowat theCherkizovsky Market,which is frequented by foreign merchants.[139]On 15 May 2008, eight people ofRussian radical nationalistorganizationSpaswere found guilty for their roles in the attack that left 14 dead.[140]Semyon Charny from theMoscow Bureau for Human Rightssays: "The fact that this case found its way to court, and the example of people sentenced to life for the Cherkizovo market blast shows that we are moving in the right direction – but there's still a lot to do."[citation needed]

Execution of a Tajik and a Dagestani[edit]

See also:Murder of Shamil Odamanov

Execution of a Tajik and a Dagestani(Russian:Казнь таджика и дагестанца,romanized:Kazn' tadzhika i dagestantsa) is a video clip that was distributed in the Russian Internet segment in August 2007, showing thebeheadingof a Russian citizen ofDagestaniorigin and the shooting of aTajikimmigrant by Russianneo-nazis.

The video sparked active discussions in the Russian media. On 17 March 2008, the District Court ofNovgorodruled the video asextremist,and banned its distribution in the Russian Federation.[141]

The video was posted on behalf of the National Socialist Party of Rus' (Russian:Национал-социалистической партии Руси) on the personal livejournal blog ofAdygeancollege student Viktor Milnikov.[142] After a few days, he was arrested and later sentenced to one year of corrective labour byMaykopcourt.[143]

On 5 June 2008, scenes of decapitation on video were identified as authentic by the Russian Investigation Committee.[144]On the same day, one of the victims on the footage was identified by his relatives as Shamil Odamanov, a native ofDagestan.[145]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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