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Radical Pietism

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Title page from "Nordische Sammlungen",a work in German, covering the martyrdom of several Radical Pietists in Sweden

Radical Pietismare thoseChristian churcheswho decided to break with denominationalLutheranismin order to emphasize certain teachings regarding holy living. Radical Pietists contrast withChurch Pietists,who chose to remain within their Lutheran denominational settings. Radical Pietists distinguish between true and falseChristianityand hold that the latter is represented by established churches. They separated from established churches to form their ownChristian denominations.[1]

Radical Pietism emphasizes the need for a "religion of the heart" instead of the head, and is characterized byethical purity,inwarddevotion,charity,andasceticism.Leadership emphasized thesanctificationof adherents instead ofsacramentalism.The Pietistic movement developed inGermany,led by those who believed a deeper emotional experience was incompatible with what they saw as a preset adherence to form, no matter how genuine. They stressed apersonal experience of salvationand a continuous openness to new spiritual illumination.[2]

Many of the Radical Pietists are influenced by the writings ofJakob Böhme,Gottfried Arnold,andPhilipp Jakob Spener,among others. They teach that personal holiness (piety),spiritualmaturity,Biblestudy,prayer,andfastingare essential toward "feeling the effects" of grace.

Churches in the Radical Pietist movement include theMennonite Brethren Church,Community of True Inspiration(Inspirationalists), theBaptist General Conference,members of theInternational Federation of Free Evangelical Churches(such as theEvangelical Covenant Churchand theEvangelical Free Church), theTemplers,theRiver Brethren(inclusive of theBrethren in Christ Church,theCalvary Holiness Church,theOld Order River Brethrenand theUnited Zion Church), as well as theSchwarzenau Brethren.[3][4][5][6][7]

Beliefs

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UnlikePietistic Lutherans,Radical Pietists believe inseparationfrom the established Lutheran Churches.[8][9]They believe that Christians can live through direct empowerment of the Holy Ghost rather than relying on a complex hierarchy.[10]Churches in the tradition of Radical Pietism teach the necessity of theNew Birth,in which one has a personal conversion experience to Christ.[2]Radical Pietists emphasize the importance of holy living and thus frequently practicefastingandprayer.[11]They also believe innon-resistanceand thus "forbid Christians to shed blood."[12]

With regard tobaptism,many Radical Pietists, such as theSchwarzenau Brethren,hold to the teaching of trine (triple) baptism: "that the original and apostolic form of baptism was to immerse the candidate forward into the water three times (once in the name of the Father, once in the name of the Son, and once in the name of the Spirit)."[13]Radical Pietists, such as theSchwarzenau Brethrenand theRiver Brethren,also practice thelovefeast,which includesfootwashingand theholy kiss,as well asclosed communion.[13]The Radical Pietistic communities do not believe in theswearing of oaths.They resolve problems in the community at the congregational level under church councils presided byelders,rather than in civil courts.[13]Members who sin openly are visited by the elders and encouraged torepentof their transgressions.[13]

Active communities

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Churches in the Radical Pietist movement include theBaptist General Conference,theCommunity of True Inspiration(Inspirationalists), members of theInternational Federation of Free Evangelical Churches(such as theEvangelical Covenant Churchand theEvangelical Free Church), theMennonite Brethren Church,theTemplers,theRiver Brethren,and theSchwarzenau Brethren.[3][4][5][7]

Baptist General Conference/Converge

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Converge,formerly known as theBaptist General Conference,emerged as a result of Radical Pietism spreading in Sweden.[3]The denomination emerged among Radical Pietists who separated fromstate churchesand emphasizes the doctrines of "believer's baptism, a believer's church, free access to read and study Scripture, the importance of prayer and other spiritual disciplines, and a lifestyle that exhibited separation from sin."[14]

North American Baptist Conference

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TheNorth American Baptist Conferenceemerged in a similar way to the Baptist General Conference, but in the United States and Canada for German speaking immigrants.[15][16][17]

Community of True Inspiration

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TheCommunity of True Inspiration,today based in theAmana Colonies,are known for their reliance uponWerkzeugewho are men and women inspired by theHoly Spirit.[18]The Inspirationists' temporal affairs continue to prosper due to their "balanced combination of agriculture, tourism, and the manufacture of Amana refrigerators."[18]Adherents belonging to the Community of True Inspiration practice their Radical Pietistic faith relatively unchanged for hundreds of years.[19]

International Federation of Free Evangelical Churches

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Community Evangelical Free Church ofSoap Lake,Washington

TheEvangelical Covenant Churchand theEvangelical Free Churchare denominations in the Radical Pietistic tradition that were founded by Scandinavian immigrants to the Americas (seeMission Friends).[20]They, along with other Radical Pietistic churches, founded theInternational Federation of Free Evangelical Churchesas an association of denominations around the world that "share the same Pietist approach to the faith and accept the Bible as their only creed".[7]

Mennonite Brethren

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TheMennonite Brethren Churchemerged among Russian Mennonites who accepted Radical Pietism.[3][21]Due to the belief inevangelismheralded by Radical Pietists, the Mennonite Brethren are characterized by their emphasis onmissionary work.[21]As with other Radical Pietists, the Mennonite Brethren emphasize apersonal conversion experience.[21]

River Brethren

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Main article:River Brethren

Brethren in Christ Church and Calvary Holiness Church

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TheBrethren in Christ Churchemerged inLancaster Countyafter a group ofMennonitescame under influence of Radical Pietistic preachers who "emphasized spiritual passion and a warm, personal relationship to Jesus Christ."[6][3]They teach "the necessity of a crisis-conversion experience" as well as the existence of asecond work of gracethat "results in the believer resulting in the ability to say no to sin".[6]The Brethren in Christ Church entered into a schism in 1964 resulting in the formation of theCalvary Holiness Church,which continues to emphasize thewearing of a headcovering by women,plain dress,temperance,footwashing,andpacifism.[22]Calvary Holiness Church is considered to be a part of theconservative holiness movement.[23]

Old Order River Brethren

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Women belonging to theOld Order River Brethren,an Anabaptist denomination in the Radical Pietistic tradition

TheOld Order River Brethrenare an Anabaptist group in the Radical Pietistic tradition who are distinguished by their practice ofplain dressand abstaining from what they see as worldly entertainment, such as the television set.[24]The Old Order River Brethren separated from other streams of theRiver Brethren(theBrethren in Christand theUnited Zion Church) to herald the doctrines ofnonresistanceandnonconformity to the world;it is the most conservative in the River Brethren tradition.[25]The River Brethren hold experience meetings, in which "members [are seen] testifying of God's work in their lives in bringing them to salvation and daily living."[25]When a member has aconversion experience,he or she begins taking part in the experience meeting and then requestsbaptism.[25]

United Zion Church

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TheUnited Zion Churchis a Radical Pietist denomination in the Anabaptist, specificallyRiver Brethren,tradition.[25]It separated from the mainstem of the River Brethren due to its allowance ofmeetinghouses,rather than worshipping in homes.[26][25]

Schwarzenau Brethren

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A church belonging to theChurch of the Brethren,aSchwarzenau Brethrendenomination that is a part of the Radical Pietistic tradition.

A Radical Pietistic community known as theSchwarzenau Brethrenoriginated in 1708; Schwarzenau Brethren includeOld Order Schwarzenau Brethren,conservative Schwarzenau Brethren—theDunkard Brethren Church,and mainline Schwarzenau Brethren—theChurch of the BrethrenandThe Brethren Church.[27][28][29]They are known for their frequent celebration of thelovefeast,which for them, consists of footwashing, supper, theholy kiss,and the Eucharist.[30]

Temple Society

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Templers,a Radical Pietistic community that lived inPalestinebefore being relocated to Australia.

TheTemplersare a Radical Pietistic community that emerged in Germany.[31]They promotesmall groupsto study the Bible and emphasize preparing for theSecond Coming of Christ.[31][32]Many Templers migrated to Russia, Palestine, and later to Australia where the Church is known as theTemple Society Australia.[31]

Communitarian living

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A common trait among some radical Pietists is that they formedcommunitieswhere they sought to revive the original Christian living of theActs of the Apostles.Other Radical Pietists "preferred a largely solitary life of prayer, living in modest cottages or even more primitive dwellings in the hills outside of the town."[13]

Jean de Labadie(1610–1674) founded acommunitariangroup in Europe which was known, after its founder, as theLabadists.Johannes Kelpius(1673–1708) led a communitarian group who came toAmericafrom Germany in 1694.Conrad Beissel(1691–1768), founder of another early pietistic communitarian group, theEphrata Cloister,was also particularly affected by Radical Pietism's emphasis on personal experience and separation from false Christianity. TheHarmony Society(1785–1906), founded byGeorge Rapp,was another German-American religious group influenced by Radical Pietism. Other groups include theZoarite Separatists(1817–1898), and theAmana Colonies(1855-today).

In Sweden, a group of radical pietists formed a community, the "Skevikare",on an island outside of Stockholm, where they lived much like the Ephrata people, for nearly a century.[33]Eric Janssonwas another Swedish Radical Pietist who formed a separatist community, the utopianBishop Hill Colony,after emigrating to Illinois.[34]

Radical Pietism's role in the emergence of modern religious communities has only begun to be adequately assessed, according to Hans Schneider, professor of church history at the University of Marburg, Germany.[35]However, this statement refers to the early era of Radical Pietism up to around 1715 while meanwhile the later era has been covered by numerous studies.

Endtime expectations, breakdown of social barriers

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Two other common traits of radical Pietism were their strongendtimeexpectations, and their breakdown of social barriers. They were very influenced by prophecies gathered and published byJohn Amos Comeniusand Gottfried Arnold. Events likecometsand lunar eclipses were seen as signs of threatening divine judgements. In Pennsylvania, Johannes Kelpius even installed a telescope on the roof of his house, where he and his followers kept watch for heavenly signs proclaiming the return of Christ.

As for the social barriers, in Germany and Sweden thefamiliar pronounthou(du) was commonly used among the radical Pietists. They also strongly abandoned class designation and academic degrees. Some of the barriers between men and women were also broken down. Many[quantify]radical pietistic women became well known as writers and prophets, as well as leaders of Philadelphian communities.[36]

Legacy

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Radical Pietism heavily influenced the development of theMethodist Churches,as well as theMoravian Church.[37][38]

Neo-Lutheranismwas a Lutheran revival in reaction against pietism, and the pietistic movement in Germany declined in the 19th century. Radical pietism had an influence on Anglican religion, especially as practiced in theUnited States,due toGerman immigrantsespecially inPennsylvania,and combined with the influenced ofPresbyterianismandPuritanismeventually led to the development of the so-calledThird Great Awakeningand the emergence of radicalEvangelicalismandPentecostalismpeculiar toChristianity in the United Statesas it developed during the later 19th to early 20th centuries.[39]

Karl Barth,who initially supportedpietism,later critiqued radical pietism as creating a move towards unorthodoxy.[40]John Milbank,speaking from the perspective ofradical orthodoxysees his critiques as misguided, overlooking how they were able to critique modern philosophy from a theological perspective by questioning the legitimacy of philosophy as "autonomous reason", ultimately leading to the demise ofKantianism.This is then seen by Milbank as the impetus for the quick rise and failure of defenses of critical reason byFichte,Schelling,andHegel.All this is seen as culminating in the especially radical pietism inKierkegaard,especially in his critique of Hegel. Further, he sees the theological content of radical pietism as forcing post Kantian idealisms to remain somewhat theological and characterizing certain central elements of modern philosophy, including "the priority of existence over thought; the primacy of language; the 'ecstatic' character of time; the historicity of reason; the dialogical principle; the suspension of the ethical; and the ontological difference."[41]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Ronald J. Gordon:Rise of Pietism in 17th Century Germany.Located at:http:// cob-net.org/pietism.htm
  2. ^abWoodbridge, John D.; III, Frank A. James (2013).Church History, Volume Two: From Pre-Reformation to the Present Day: The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context.Zondervan Academic.ISBN9780310515142.
  3. ^abcdeShantz, Douglas H. (2013).An Introduction to German Pietism: Protestant Renewal at the Dawn of Modern Europe.JHU Press.ISBN9781421408804.
  4. ^abSmith, James Ward; Jamison, Albert Leland (1969).Religion in American life.Princeton University Press.
  5. ^abRatliff, Walter R. (2010).Pilgrims on the Silk Road: A Muslim-Christian Encounter in Khiva.Walter Ratliff.ISBN9781606081334.
  6. ^abcCarter, Craig A. (2007).Rethinking Christ and Culture: A Post-Christendom Perspective.Brazos Press.ISBN9781441201225.
  7. ^abcMelton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin (2010).Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition [6 volumes].ABC-CLIO.ISBN9781598842043.
  8. ^Kuenning, Paul P. (1988).The Rise and Fall of American Lutheran Pietism: The Rejection of an Activist Heritage.Mercer University Press.ISBN9780865543065.
  9. ^Granquist, Mark Alan (2015).Lutherans in America: A New History.Augsburg Fortress Publishers.ISBN9781451472288.
  10. ^Cartwright, Michael G. (2010).Exploring Christian Mission Beyond Christendom: United Methodist Perspectives.University Press. p. 19.ISBN9781880938744.
  11. ^Methodist History, Volume 37, Issues 2-4.Methodist Church. 1999. p. 184.
  12. ^Archives and History: Minutes and Reports of the... Conference on Archives and History.Concordia Historical Institute.1983. p. 65.
  13. ^abcdeKurian, George Thomas; Lamport, Mark A. (2016).Encyclopedia of Christianity in the United States.Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN9781442244320.
  14. ^Carlson, William G.; Gehrz, Christopher; Winn, Christian T. Collins; Holst, Eric; Collins, Gehrz; Christopher, Carlson; William, G. (2012).The Pietist Impulse in Christianity.Casemate Publishers.ISBN9780227680001.
  15. ^Gehrz, Chris (2011-08-12)."The Pietist Impulse: Americans (and a Canadian)".The Pietist Schoolman.Retrieved2024-04-26.
  16. ^"The German Baptists".sites.ualberta.ca.Retrieved2024-04-26.
  17. ^Priestley, David T. (1994)."Ethnicity and Piety Among Alberta's" German "Baptists".Historical Papers 1994: Canadian Society of Church History. pp. 143–163.Retrieved2024-04-25.
  18. ^abHowe, Daniel Walker (2007).What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815-1848.Oxford University Press.ISBN9780199743797.
  19. ^Schneider, Hans (2007).German Radical Pietism.Scarecrow Press. p. 124.ISBN9780810858176.
  20. ^Shantz, Douglas (2014).A Companion to German Pietism, 1660-1800.Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN9789004283862.
  21. ^abcToews, John B. (1993).A Pilgrimage of Faith: The Mennonite Brethren Church in Russia and North America, 1860-1990.Kindred Productions. pp. 83–85.ISBN9780921788171.
  22. ^Lewis, James R. (2002).The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions.Prometheus Books. p. 151.ISBN9781615927388.
  23. ^Melton, J. Gordon (1978).The Encyclopedia of American Religions.McGrath Publishing Company. p. 236.
  24. ^Cates, James A. (2014).Serving the Amish: A Cultural Guide for Professionals.JHU Press.ISBN9781421414959.
  25. ^abcdeBronner, Simon J. (2015).Encyclopedia of American Folklife.Routledge.ISBN9781317471950.
  26. ^Kurian, George Thomas; Day, Sarah Claudine (2017).The Essential Handbook of Denominations and Ministries.Baker Books.ISBN9781493406401.
  27. ^Bowman, Carl F. (1995).Brethren Society: The Cultural Transformation of a "Peculiar People".JHU Press.ISBN9780801849053.
  28. ^"History".Dunkard Brethren Church.Archived fromthe originalon 18 April 2022.Retrieved20 May2022.
  29. ^Bronner, Simon J. (4 March 2015).Encyclopedia of American Folklife.Routledge.ISBN978-1-317-47194-3.Only a tiny minority within the Church of the Brethren continues some vestigates of plain dress, such as the prayer covering for women. The Old German Baptist Brethren and the Dunkard Brethren, however, have maintained standards of traditional plain dress.
  30. ^Stutzman, Paul Fike (2011).Recovering the Love Feast: Broadening Our Eucharistic Celebrations.Wipf and Stock Publishers.ISBN9781608994564.
  31. ^abcRatliff, Walter R. (2010).Pilgrims on the Silk Road: A Muslim-Christian Encounter in Khiva.Walter Ratliff. pp. 75–76.ISBN9781606081334.
  32. ^Pappé, Ilan (2015).Israel and South Africa: The Many Faces of Apartheid.Zed Books Ltd.ISBN9781783605927.
  33. ^Alfred Kämpe, "Främlingarna på Skevik"(1924)
  34. ^Brackney, William H. (2012).Historical dictionary of radical Christianity.Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0-8108-7365-0.OCLC794620704.
  35. ^German Radical Pietism, by Hans SchneiderArchived2007-10-23 at theWayback Machine
  36. ^German Radical Pietism/The Roots, Origin, and Terminology of Radical PietismArchivedDecember 1, 2007, at theWayback Machine
  37. ^The New Encyclopaedia Britannica.Encyclopaedia Britannica.2003.ISBN9780852299616.
  38. ^Concordia Theological Monthly, Volume 39.1968. p. 257.
  39. ^"Evangelicalism itself, I believe, is quintessentially North American phenomenon, deriving as it did from the confluence of Pietism, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of Puritanism. Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain – warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans – even as the North American context itself has profoundly shaped the various manifestations of evangelicalism: fundamentalism, neo-evangelicalism, the holiness movement, Pentecostalism, the charismatic movement, and various forms of African-American and Hispanic evangelicalism." Randall Balmer (2002).The Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism.Westminster John Knox Press. pp. vii–viii.
  40. ^[1],published in Karl Barth & the Pietists: The Young Karl Barth's Critique of Pietism & Its Response, page 24-25.
  41. ^[2],pages 22-23.

Further reading

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Books and articles inGerman:

  • Hans-Jürgen Schrader: Literaturproduktion und Büchermarkt des radikalen Pietismus: Johann Heinrich Reitz' "Historie der Wiedergebohrnen" und ihr geschichtlicher Kontext (Palaestra 283). Göttingen 1989.
  • Ulf-Michael Schneider: Propheten der Goethezeit. Sprache, Literatur und Wirkung der Inspirierten (Palaestra 297). Göttingen 1995.
  • Barbara Hoffmann: Radikalpietismus um 1700. Der Streit um das Recht auf eine neue Gesellschaft. Frankfurt am Main 1996.
  • Andreas Deppermann: Johann Jakob Schütz und die Anfänge des Pietismus. Tübingen 2002.
  • Willi Temme: Krise der Leiblichkeit. Die Sozietät der Mutter Eva (Buttlarsche Rotte) und der radikale Pietismus um 1700 (Arbeiten zur Geschichte des Pietismus 35). Göttingen 1998.
  • Johannes Burkardt/Michael Knieriem:Die Gesellschaft der Kindheit-Jesu-Genossen auf Schloss Hayn. Aus dem Nachlass des von Fleischbein und Korrespondenzen von de Marsay, Prueschenk von Lindenhofen und Tersteegen 1734 bis 1742. Hannover 2002.
  • Eberhard Fritz: Radikaler Pietismus in Württemberg. Religiöse Ideale im Konflikt mit gesellschaftlichen Realitäten (Quellen und Forschungen zur württembergischen Kirchengeschichte 18). Epfendorf 2003.
  • Eberhard Fritz: Separatistinnen und Separatisten in Württemberg und in angrenzenden Territorien. Ein biographisches Verzeichnis (Südwestdeutsche Quellen zur Familienforschung Band 3). Stuttgart 2005.
  • Hans Schneider: Radical German Pietism. Translated by Gerald MacDonald. Lanham, MD 2007.
  • Douglas H. Shantz: Between Sardis and Philadelphia: the Life and World of Pietist Court Preacher Conrad Bröske. Leiden 2008.
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