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Raised beach

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"Marine terrace" redirects here. For the street in Fremantle, seeMarine Terrace, Fremantle.
Raised beach and marine terraces atWater Canyon beach
A raised beach, now at 4 metres (13 ft) above high tide, formedKing's Cave,Arran, below an earlier raised beach at around 30 metres (98 ft) height.

Araised beach,coastal terrace,[1]orperched coastlineis a relatively flat, horizontal or gently inclined surface of marine origin,[2]mostly an oldabrasion platformwhich has been lifted out of the sphere of wave activity (sometimes called "tread" ). Thus, it lies above or under the currentsea level,depending on the time of its formation.[3][4]It is bounded by a steeper ascending slope on the landward side and a steeper descending slope on the seaward side[2](sometimes called "riser" ). Due to its generally flat shape, it is often used foranthropogenicstructures such as settlements andinfrastructure.[3]

A raised beach is anemergent coastallandform.Raised beaches and marine terraces arebeachesorwave-cut platformsraised above the shoreline by a relative fall in thesea level.[5]

Relictsea-cliffsatKing's CaveonArran's south-west coast

Around the world, a combination of tectonic coastal uplift andQuaternarysea-level fluctuationshas resulted in the formation of marine terrace sequences, most of which were formed during separateinterglacialhighstands that can be correlated tomarine isotope stages(MIS).[6]

A marine terrace commonly retains a shoreline angle or inner edge, the slope inflection between the marine abrasion platform and the associated paleo sea-cliff. The shoreline angle represents the maximum shoreline of a transgression and therefore a paleo-sea level.

Morphology

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marine terraces
Typical sequence oferosionalmarine terraces. 1)low tide cliff/ramp with deposition, 2)modernshore (wave-cut/abrasion-) platform,3)notch/inner edge, modern shoreline angle, 4)modern seacliff,5) oldshore (wave-cut/abrasion-) platform,6)paleo-shoreline angle, 7)paleo-sea cliff, 8)terrace cover deposits/marine deposits,colluvium,9)alluvial fan,10)decayed and covered sea cliff andshore platform,11)paleo-sea levelI, 12)paleo-sea levelII. – after various authors[1][3][7][8]

The platform of a marine terrace usually has a gradient between 1°–5° depending on the formertidalrange with, commonly, a linear to concave profile. The width is quite variable, reaching up to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), and seems to differ between thenorthernandsouthern hemispheres.[9]Theclifffaces that delimit the platform can vary in steepness depending on the relative roles of marine andsubaerialprocesses.[10]At the intersection of the formershore (wave-cut/abrasion-) platformand the rising cliff face the platform commonly retains a shoreline angle or inner edge (notch) that indicates the location of the shoreline at the time of maximum sea ingression and therefore a paleo-sea level.[11]Sub-horizontal platforms usually terminate in a low tide cliff, and it is believed that the occurrence of these platforms depends on tidal activity.[10]Marine terraces can extend for several tens of kilometers parallel to thecoast.[3]

Older terraces are covered by marine and/oralluvialorcolluvialmaterials while the uppermost terrace levels usually are less well preserved.[12]While marine terraces in areas of relatively rapid uplift rates (> 1 mm/year) can often be correlated to individualinterglacialperiods or stages, those in areas of slower uplift rates may have a polycyclic origin with stages of returningsea levelsfollowing periods of exposure toweathering.[2]

Marine terraces can be covered by a wide variety ofsoilswith complex histories and different ages. In protected areas,allochthonoussandy parent materials fromtsunami depositsmay be found. Common soil types found on marine terraces includeplanosolsandsolonetz.[13]

Formation

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It is now widely thought that marine terraces are formed during the separated highstands ofinterglacialstages correlated tomarine isotope stages(MIS).[14][15][16][17][18]

Causes

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Sea Level Reconstruction
Comparison of twosea level reconstructionsduring the last 500Ma. The scale of change during the last glacial/interglacial transition is indicated with a black bar.

The formation of marine terraces is controlled by changes in environmental conditions and bytectonic activityduring recentgeological times.Changes in climatic conditionshave led toeustaticsea-level oscillations andisostaticmovements of theEarth's crust,especially with the changes betweenglacialandinterglacialperiods.

Processes ofeustasylead toglacioeustaticsea level fluctuations due to changes of the water volume in the oceans, and hence toregressionsandtransgressionsof the shoreline. At times of maximum glacial extent during thelast glacial period,thesea levelwas about 100 metres (330 ft) lower compared to today.Eustaticsea level changescan also be caused by changes in the void volume of the oceans, either through sedimento-eustasy or tectono-eustasy.[19]

Processes ofisostasyinvolve the uplift ofcontinental crustsalong with their shorelines. Today, the process ofglacial isostatic adjustmentmainly applies toPleistoceneglaciated areas.[19]InScandinavia,for instance, the present rate of uplift reaches up to 10 millimetres (0.39 in)/year.[20]

In general, eustatic marine terraces were formed during separate sea level highstands ofinterglacialstages[19][21]and can be correlated tomarine oxygen isotopic stages (MIS).[22][23]Glacioisostatic marine terraces were mainly created during stillstands of theisostatic uplift.[19]When eustasy was the main factor for the formation of marine terraces, derived sea level fluctuations can indicate formerclimate changes.This conclusion has to be treated with care, asisostatic adjustmentsandtectonic activitiescan be extensively overcompensated by a eustatic sea level rise. Thus, in areas of both eustatic and isostatic ortectonicinfluences, the course of the relative sea level curve can be complicated.[24]Hence, most of today's marine terrace sequences were formed by a combination of tectonic coastal uplift andQuaternarysea level fluctuations.

Jerky tectonic uplifts can also lead to marked terrace steps while smooth relative sea level changes may not result in obvious terraces, and their formations are often not referred to as marine terraces.[11]

Processes

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Marine terraces often result frommarine erosionalong rocky coastlines[2]intemperate regionsdue to wave attack andsedimentcarried in the waves.Erosionalso takes place in connection withweatheringandcavitation.The speed of erosion is highly dependent on the shoreline material (hardness of rock[10]), thebathymetry,and thebedrockproperties and can be between only a few millimeters per year forgraniticrocks and more than 10 metres (33 ft) per year forvolcanic ejecta.[10][25]The retreat of the seacliffgenerates ashore (wave-cut/abrasion-) platformthrough the process ofabrasion.A relative change of thesea levelleads toregressionsortransgressionsand eventually forms another terrace (marine-cut terrace) at a different altitude, while notches in the cliff face indicate short stillstands.[25]

It is believed that the terrace gradient increases withtidalrange and decreases with rock resistance. In addition, the relationship between terrace width and the strength of the rock is inverse, and higher rates of uplift and subsidence as well as a higher slope of thehinterlandincreases the number of terraces formed during a certain time.[26]

Furthermore,shore platformsare formed bydenudationand marine-built terraces arise from accumulations of materials removed byshore erosion.[2]Thus, a marine terrace can be formed by botherosionand accumulation. However, there is an ongoing debate about the roles ofwave erosionandweatheringin the formation of shore platforms.[10]

Reef flatsor uplifted coral reefs are another kind of marine terrace found in intertropical regions. They are a result of biological activity, shoreline advance and accumulation ofreefmaterials.[2]

While a terrace sequence can date back hundreds of thousands of years, its degradation is a rather fast process. A deeper transgression of cliffs into the shoreline may completely destroy previous terraces; but older terraces might be decayed[25]or covered by deposits,colluviaoralluvial fans.[3]Erosion and backwearing of slopes caused by incisive streams play another important role in this degradation process.[25]

Land and sea level history

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The total displacement of the shoreline relative to the age of the associated interglacial stage allows calculation of a mean uplift rate or the calculation of eustatic level at a particular time if the uplift is known.

In order to estimate vertical uplift, the eustatic position of the considered paleo sea levels relative to the present one must be known as precisely as possible. Currentchronologyrelies principally onrelative datingbased ongeomorphologiccriteria, but in all cases the shoreline angle of the marine terraces is associated with numerical ages. The best-represented terrace worldwide is the one correlated to the last interglacial maximum (MIS 5e).[27][28][29]Age of MISS 5e is arbitrarily fixed to range from 130 to 116 ka[30]but is demonstrated to range from 134 to 113 ka inHawaiiandBarbadoswith a peak from 128 to 116 ka on tectonically stable coastlines. Older marine terraces well represented in worldwide sequences are those related toMIS 9(~303–339 ka) and11(~362–423 ka).[31]Compilations show that sea level was 3 ± 3 meters higher during MIS 5e, MIS 9 and 11 than during the present one and −1 ± 1 m to the present one duringMIS 7.[32][33]Consequently, MIS 7 (~180-240 ka) marine terraces are less pronounced and sometimes absent. When the elevations of these terraces are higher than the uncertainties in paleo-eustatic sea level mentioned for theHoloceneandLate Pleistocene,these uncertainties have no effect on overall interpretation.

Sequence can also occur where the accumulation ofice sheetshave depressed the land so that when the ice sheets melts the land readjusts with time thus raising the height of the beaches (glacio-isostatic rebound) and in places where co-seismic uplift occur. In the latter case, the terrace are not correlated with sea level highstand even if co-seismic terrace are known only for the Holocene.

Mapping and surveying

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Tongue Point New Zealand
Aerial photograph of the lowest marine terrace at Tongue Point,New Zealand

For exact interpretations of the morphology, extensive datings, surveying and mapping of marine terraces is applied. This includesstereoscopicaerial photographic interpretation(ca. 1: 10,000 – 25,000[11]), on-site inspections withtopographic maps(ca. 1: 10,000) and analysis of eroded and accumulated material. Moreover, the exact altitude can be determined with ananeroid barometeror preferably with alevelling instrumentmounted on a tripod. It should be measured with the accuracy of 1 cm (0.39 in) and at about every 50–100 metres (160–330 ft), depending on thetopography.In remote areas, the techniques ofphotogrammetryandtacheometrycan be applied.[24]

Correlation and dating

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Different methods for dating and correlation of marine terraces can be used and combined.

Correlational dating

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The morphostratigraphic approach focuses especially in regions ofmarine regressionon the altitude as the most important criterion to distinguish coastlines of different ages. Moreover, individual marine terraces can be correlated based on their size and continuity. Also, paleo-soils as well asglacial,fluvial,eolianandperiglaciallandforms andsedimentsmay be used to find correlations between terraces.[24]OnNew Zealand's North Island,for instance,tephraandloesswere used to date and correlate marine terraces.[34]At the terminus advance of formerglaciersmarine terraces can be correlated by their size, as their width decreases with age due to the slowly thawing glaciers along the coastline.[24]

Thelithostratigraphicapproach uses typical sequences ofsedimentandrock stratato provesea levelfluctuations on the basis of an alternation of terrestrial andmarine sedimentsorlittoraland shallow marine sediments. Those strata show typical layers of transgressive and regressive patterns.[24]However, anunconformityin the sediment sequence might make this analysis difficult.[35]

Thebiostratigraphicapproach uses remains of organisms which can indicate the age of a marine terrace. For that, oftenmollusc shells,foraminiferaorpollenare used. EspeciallyMolluscacan show specific properties depending on their depth ofsedimentation.Thus, they can be used to estimate former water depths.[24]

Marine terraces are often correlated tomarine oxygen isotopic stages (MIS)[22]and can also be roughly dated using theirstratigraphicposition.[24]

Direct dating

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There are various methods for the direct dating of marine terraces and their related materials. The most common method is14Cradiocarbon dating,[36]which has been used, for example, on theNorth Island of New Zealandto date several marine terraces.[37]It utilizes terrestrialbiogenic materialsin coastalsediments,such asmollusc shells,by analyzing the14Cisotope.[24]In some cases, however, dating based on the230Th/234Uratio was applied, in casedetritalcontamination or lowuraniumconcentrations made finding a high resolution dating difficult.[38]In a study in southernItalypaleomagnetismwas used to carry outpaleomagnetic datings[39]andluminescence dating(OSL) was used in different studies on theSan Andreas Fault[40]and on theQuaternaryEupcheon FaultinSouth Korea.[41]In the last decade, the dating of marine terraces has been enhanced since the arrival of terrestrialcosmogenic nuclidesmethod, and particularly through the use of10Beand26Alcosmogenic isotopesproduced on site.[42][43][44]These isotopes record the duration of surface exposure tocosmic rays.[45]This exposure age reflects the age of abandonment of a marine terrace by the sea.

In order to calculate the eustaticsea levelfor each dated terrace, it is assumed that the eustatic sea-level position corresponding to at least one marine terrace is known and that the uplift rate has remained essentially constant in each section.[2]

Relevance for other research areas

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Marine terraces south ofChoapa Riverin Chile. These terraces have been studied among others byRoland Paskoff.

Marine terraces play an important role in the research ontectonicsandearthquakes.They may show patterns and rates oftectonic uplift[40][44][46]and thus may be used to estimate thetectonic activityin a certain region.[41]In some cases the exposed secondary landforms can be correlated with known seismic events such as the1855 Wairarapa earthquakeon theWairarapa FaultnearWellington,New Zealandwhich produced a 2.7-metre (8 ft 10 in) uplift.[47]This figure can be estimated from the vertical offset betweenraised shorelinesin the area.[48]

Furthermore, with the knowledge of eustaticsea levelfluctuations, the speed of isostatic uplift can be estimated[49]and eventually the change of relative sea levels for certain regions can be reconstructed. Thus, marine terraces also provide information for the research onclimate changeand trends in futuresea levelchanges.[10][50]

When analyzing the morphology of marine terraces, it must be considered, that botheustasyandisostasycan have an influence on the formation process. This way can be assessed, whether there were changes in sea level or whethertectonic activitiestook place.

Prominent examples

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Tongue Point New Zealand
Quaternarymarine terraces at Tongue Point,New Zealand

Raised beaches are found in a wide variety of coast andgeodynamicalbackground such assubductionon thePacific coastsofSouthandNorth America,passive marginof theAtlantic coastof South America,[51]collision context on the Pacific coast of Kamchatka,Papua New Guinea,New Zealand,Japan,passive margin of theSouth China Seacoast, on west-facing Atlantic coasts, such asDonegal Bay,County CorkandCounty KerryinIreland;Bude,Widemouth Bay,Crackington Haven,Tintagel,PerranporthandSt IvesinCornwall,theVale of Glamorgan,Gower Peninsula,PembrokeshireandCardigan BayinWales,Juraand theIsle of ArraninScotland,FinistèreinBrittanyandGaliciainNorthern Spainand atSqually PointinEatonville, Nova Scotiawithin theCape Chignecto Provincial Park.

Other important sites include various coasts ofNew Zealand,e.g.Turakirae HeadnearWellingtonbeing one of the world's best and most thoroughly studied examples.[47][48][52]Also along theCook StraitinNew Zealand,there is a well-defined sequence of uplifted marine terraces from the lateQuaternaryat Tongue Point. It features a well preserved lower terrace from the lastinterglacial,a widely eroded higher terrace from thepenultimate interglacialand another still higher terrace, which is nearly completely decayed.[47]Furthermore, onNew Zealand's North Islandat the easternBay of Plenty,a sequence of seven marine terraces has been studied.[12][37]

marine terraces California
Air photograph of the marine terraced coastline north ofSanta Cruz,California,noteHighway 1running along the coast along the lower terraces

Along many coasts of mainland and islands around thePacific,marine terraces are typical coastal features. An especially prominent marine terraced coastline can be found north ofSanta Cruz,nearDavenport,California,where terraces probably have been raised by repeated slip earthquakes on theSan Andreas Fault.[40][53]Hans Jennyfamously researched thepygmy forestsof theMendocinoandSonomacounty marine terraces. The marine terrace's "ecological staircase" ofSalt Point State Parkis also bound by the San Andreas Fault.

Along the coasts ofSouth Americamarine terraces are present,[44][54]where the highest ones are situated whereplate marginslie above subducted oceanic ridges and the highest and most rapid rates of uplift occur.[7][46]At Cape Laundi,Sumba Island,Indonesiaan ancientpatch reefcan be found at 475 m (1,558 ft) abovesea levelas part of a sequence of coral reef terraces with eleven terraces being wider than 100 m (330 ft).[55]The coral marine terraces atHuon Peninsula,New Guinea,which extend over 80 km (50 mi) and rise over 600 m (2,000 ft) above presentsea level[56]are currently onUNESCO's tentative list forworld heritage sitesunder the nameHoun Terraces - Stairway to the Past.[57]

Other considerable examples include marine terraces rising up to 360 m (1,180 ft) on somePhilippine Islands[58]and along theMediterraneanCoast ofNorth Africa,especially inTunisia,rising up to 400 m (1,300 ft).[59]

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Uplift can also be registered through tidal notch sequences. Notches are often portrayed as lying at sea level; however notch types actually form a continuum from wave notches formed in quiet conditions at sea level to surf notches formed in more turbulent conditions and as much as 2 m (6.6 ft) above sea level.[60]As stated above, there was at least one higher sea level during the Holocene, so that some notches may not contain a tectonic component in their formation.

See also

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References

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