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Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta
753–982
Rashtrakuta control around 790 AD, during the Tripartite Struggle[1]
Rashtrakuta control around 790 AD, during theTripartite Struggle[1]
CapitalManyakheta
Common languagesKannada
Sanskrit
Religion
Hinduism
Jainism
Buddhism[2]
GovernmentMonarchy
Maharaja
• 735–756
Dantidurga
• 973–982
Indra IV
History
• Earliest Rashtrakuta records
753 CE
• Established
753
• Disestablished
20 March 982
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Chalukya dynasty
Western Chalukya Empire
Today part ofIndia
Rashtrakuta dynasty

TheRashtrakutas[a]were a royal Indiandynastyruling large parts of theIndian subcontinentbetween the 6th and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakutainscriptionis a 7th-centurycopper plate grantdetailing their rule from Manapur, a city in Central or West India. Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings ofAchalapurand the rulers ofKannauj.Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native homeland and their language.

The Elichpur clan was afeudatoryof theBadami Chalukyas,and during the rule ofDantidurga,it overthrew ChalukyaKirtivarman IIand went on to build an empire with theGulbargaregion in modernKarnatakaas its base. This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas ofManyakheta,rising to power inSouth Indiain 753 AD. At the same time thePala dynastyofBengaland thePrathihara dynastyofGurjaratrawere gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively. An Arabic text,Silsilat al-Tawarikh(851), called the Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world.[3]

This period, between the 8th and the 10th centuries, saw atripartite strugglefor the resources of the richGangetic plains,each of these three empires anne xing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. At their peak the Rashtrakutas ofManyakhetaruled a vast empire stretching from theGanges RiverandYamuna Riverdoabin the north toKanyakumariin the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions. The early kings of this dynasty were influenced byHinduismand the later kings byJainism.

During their rule,Jainmathematicians and scholars contributed important works inKannadaandSanskrit.Amoghavarsha I,the most famous king of this dynasty wroteKavirajamarga,a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a milestone in theDravidianstyle, the finest example of which is seen in theKailasanatha TempleatEllorain modernMaharashtra.Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple atPattadakalin modern Karnataka, both of which areUNESCO World Heritage Sites.

History

Further information:Origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty,Carnatic expansion,andBranches of Rashtrakuta dynasty

The origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic of Indian history. These issues pertain to the origin of the earliest ancestors of the Rashtrakutas during the time of EmperorAshokain the 2nd centuryBCE,[4]and the connection between the several Rashtrakuta dynasties that ruled small kingdoms in northern and central India and the Deccan between the 6th and 7th centuries. The relationship of these medieval Rashtrakutas to the most famous later dynasty, the Rashtrakutas ofManyakheta(present-day Malkhed in theKalaburagi district,Karnataka state), who ruled between the 8th and 10th centuries has also been debated.[5][6][7]

The sources for Rashtrakuta history include medievalinscriptions,ancient literature in thePalilanguage,[8]contemporaneous literature in Sanskrit andKannadaand the notes of the Arab travellers.[9]Theories about the dynastic lineage (Surya Vamsa—Solar line andChandra Vamsa—Lunar line), the native region and the ancestral home have been proposed, based on information gleaned from inscriptions, royal emblems, the ancient clan names such as "Rashtrika", epithets (Ratta,Rashtrakuta,Lattalura Puravaradhiswara), the names of princes and princesses of the dynasty, and clues from relics such as coins.[7][10]Scholars debate over which ethnic/linguistic groups can claim the early Rashtrakutas. Possibilities include theKannadiga,[11][12][13][14][15]Reddi,[16]theMaratha,[17][18]the tribes from thePunjab region,[19]or other north western ethnic groups of India.[20]

Scholars however concur that the rulers of the imperial dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made theKannada languageas important as Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use both Kannada and Sanskrit (historiansSheldon Pollockand Jan Houben claim they are mostly in Kannada),[21][22][23][24][25]and the rulers encouraged literature in both languages. The earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty.[26][27][28][29]Though these Rashtrakutas wereKannadigas,[15][7][30][31][32][33][11]they were conversant in a northern Deccan language as well.[34]

The heart of the Rashtrakuta empire included nearly all ofKarnataka,Maharashtraand parts ofAndhra Pradesh,an area which the Rashtrakutas ruled for over two centuries. The Samangadh copper plate grant (753) confirms that the feudatory KingDantidurga,who probably ruled from Achalapura inBerar(modernElichpurin Maharashtra), defeated the great Karnatic army (referring to the army of theBadami Chalukyas) of Kirtivarman II ofBadamiin 753 and took control of the northern regions of the Chalukya empire.[35][36][37]He then helped his son-in-law,PallavaKingNandivarman IIregainKanchifrom the Chalukyas and defeated the Gurjaras, and the rulers ofKalinga,KosalaandSrisailam.[38][39]

Dantidurga's successorKrishna Ibrought major portions of present-day Karnataka andKonkanunder his control.[40][41]During the rule ofDhruva Dharavarshawho took control in 780, the kingdom expanded into an empire that encompassed all of the territory between theKaveri RiverandCentral India.[40][42][43][44]He led successful expeditions to Kannauj, the seat of northern Indian power where he defeated thePratiharasand thePalasof Bengal, gaining him fame and vast booty but not more territory. He also brought theEastern ChalukyasandGangasofTalakadunder his control.[40][45]According to Altekar and Sen, the Rashtrakutas became a pan-India power during his rule.[44][46]

Expansion

class=notpageimage|
The Rashtrakutas and neighbouring polities in South Asia circa 800 CE.[47]

The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarsha's third son,Govinda III,to the throne heralded an era of success like never before.[48]There is uncertainty about the location of the early capital of the Rashtrakutas at this time.[49][50][51]During his rule there was a three way conflict between the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Pratiharas for control over the Gangetic plains. Describing his victories over the Pratihara Emperor Nagabhatta II and thePalaEmperorDharmapala,[40]the Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank from the icy waters of the Himalayan streams and his war elephants tasted thesacred watersof theGanges.[52][53]His military exploits have been compared to those ofAlexander the GreatandArjunaofMahabharata.[54]Having conquered Kannauj, he travelled south, took firm hold over Gujarat, Kosala (Kaushal),Gangavadi,humbled thePallavasof Kanchi, installed a ruler of his choice inVengiand received two statues as an act of submission from the king ofCeylon(one statue of the king and another of his minister). The Cholas, thePandyasand the Kongu Cheras of Karur all paid him tribute.[55][56][57][58]As one historian puts it, the drums of the Deccan were heard from the Himalayan caves to the shores of the Malabar Coast.[54]The Rashtrakutas empire now spread over the areas fromCape ComorintoKannaujand fromBanarastoBharuch.[59][60]

The successor of Govinda III,Amoghavarsha ImadeManyakhetahis capital and ruled a large empire. Manyakheta remained the Rashtrakutas' regal capital until the end of the empire.[61][62][63]He came to the throne in 814 but it was not until 821 that he had suppressed revolts fromfeudatoriesand ministers. Amoghavarsha I made peace with theWestern Ganga dynastyby giving them his two daughters in marriage, and then defeated the invadingEastern Chalukyasat Vingavalli and assumed the titleViranarayana.[64][65]His rule was not as militant as that of Govinda III as he preferred to maintain friendly relations with his neighbours, the Gangas, the Eastern Chalukyas and the Pallavas with whom he also cultivated marital ties. His era was an enriching one for the arts, literature and religion. Widely seen as the most famous of the Rashtrakuta Emperors,Amoghavarsha Iwas an accomplished scholar in Kannada and Sanskrit.[66][67]HisKavirajamargais considered an important landmark in Kannada poetics andPrashnottara Ratnamalikain Sanskrit is a writing of high merit and was later translated into the Tibetan language.[68]Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature, he has been compared to the emperorAshokaand called "Ashoka of the South".[69]

During the rule ofKrishna II,the empire faced a revolt from the Eastern Chalukyas and its size decreased to the area including most of the WesternDeccanand Gujarat.[70]Krishna II ended the independent status of the Gujarat branch and brought it under direct control from Manyakheta.Indra IIIrecovered the dynasty's fortunes in central India by defeating theKingdom of Malwaand then invaded thedoabregion of theGangesandJamunarivers. He also defeated the dynasty's traditional enemies, the Pratiharas and the Palas, while maintaining his influence overVengi.[70][71][72]The effect of his victories in Kannauj lasted several years according to the 930 copper plate inscription of EmperorGovinda IV.[73][74]After a succession of weak kings during whose reigns the empire lost control of territories in the north and east,Krishna IIIthe last great ruler consolidated the empire so that it stretched from theNarmada RivertoKaveri Riverand included the northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon.[75][76][77][78][79]

Decline

In 972 A.D.,[80]during the rule ofKhottiga Amoghavarsha,theMalwaKingSiyakaHarsha attacked the empire and plundered Manyakheta, the capital of the Rashtrakutas. This seriously undermined the reputation of the Rastrakuta Empire and consequently led to its downfall.[81]The final decline was sudden asTailapa II,a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from Tardavadi province in modernBijapur district,declared himself independent by taking advantage of this defeat.[82][83]Indra IV, the last emperor, committedSallekhana(fasting unto death practised by Jain monks) atShravanabelagola.With the fall of the Rashtrakutas, their feudatories and related clans in the Deccan and northern India declared independence. TheWestern Chalukyasannexed Manyakheta and made it their capital until 1015 and built an impressive empire in the Rashtrakuta heartland during the 11th century. The focus of dominance shifted to theKrishna River–Godavari Riverdoab calledVengi.The former feudatories of the Rashtrakutas in western Deccan were brought under control of the Chalukyas, and the hitherto-suppressed Cholas of Tanjore became their arch enemies in the south.[84]

In conclusion, the rise of Rashtrakutas ofManyakhetahad a great impact on India, even on India's north. Sulaiman (851),Al-Masudi(944) and Ibn Khurdadba (912) wrote that their empire was the largest in contemporary India and Sulaiman further called it one among the four great contemporary empires of the world.[85][86][87]According to the travelogues of the Arabs Al Masudi and Ibn Khordidbih of the 10th century, "most of the kings of Hindustan turned their faces towards the Rashtrakuta king while they were praying, and they prostrated themselves before his ambassadors. The Rashtrakuta king was known as the" King of kings "(Rajadhiraja) who possessed the mightiest of armies and whose domains extended from Konkan to Sind. "[88]Some historians have called these times an "Age of Imperial Kannauj". Since the Rashtrakutas successfully captured Kannauj, levied tribute on its rulers and presented themselves as masters of North India, the era could also be called the "Age of Imperial Karnataka".[87]During their political expansion into central and northern India in the 8th to the 10th centuries, the Rashtrakutas or their relatives created several kingdoms that either ruled during the reign of the parent empire or continued to rule for centuries after its fall or came to power much later. Well known among these were the Rashtrakutas ofGujarat(757–888),[89]theRattasofSaundatti(875–1230) in modern Karnataka,[90]the Gahadavalas of Kannauj (1068–1223),[91]the Rashtrakutas ofRajasthan(known as Rajputana) and ruling from Hastikundi or Hathundi (893–996),[92]Dahal (nearJabalpur),[93]Rathoresof Mandore (nearJodhpur), theRathoresof Dhanop,[94]Rashtraudha dynasty of Mayuragiri in modern Maharashtra[95]and Rashtrakutas of Kannauj.[96]Rajadhiraja Chola's conquest of the island of Ceylon in the early 11th century CE led to the fall of four kings there. According to historian K. Pillay, one of them, King Madavarajah of theJaffna kingdom,was an usurper from the Rashtrakuta dynasty.[97]

Administration

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Inscriptions and other literary records indicate the Rashtrakutas selected the crown prince based on heredity. The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son. Abilities were considered more important than age and chronology of birth, as exemplified by the crowning of Govinda III who was the third son of king Dhruva Dharavarsha. The most important position under the king was the Chief Minister (Mahasandhivigrahi) whose position came with five insignia commensurate with his position namely, a flag, a conch, a fan, a white umbrella, a large drum and five musical instruments calledPanchamahashabdas.Under him was the commander (Dandanayaka), the foreign minister (Mahakshapataladhikrita) and a prime minister (MahamatyaorPurnamathya), all of whom were usually associated with one of the feudatory kings and must have held a position in government equivalent to a premier.[98]AMahasamanthawas a feudatory or higher ranking regal officer. All cabinet ministers were well versed in political science (Rajneeti) and possessed military training. There were cases where women supervised significant areas as when Revakanimaddi, daughter ofAmoghavarsha I,administered EdathoreVishaya.

The kingdom was divided intoMandalaorRashtras(provinces). ARashtrawas ruled by a Rashtrapathi who on occasion was the emperor himself. Amoghavarsha I's empire had sixteenRashtras.Under aRashtrawas aVishaya(district) overseen by a Vishayapathi. Trusted ministers sometimes ruled more than aRashtra.For example, Bankesha, a commander ofAmoghavarsha Iheaded severalRashtras,besides rulingBanavasiwhich included 12,000 villages in that territory, lesserRashtrasincluded: Kunduru (500), Belvola (300), Puligere (300) and Kundarge (70). Below theVishayawas theNadulooked after by theNadugowda(or Nadugavunda); sometimes there were two such officials, one assuming the position through heredity and another appointed centrally. The lowest division was aGramaor village administered by aGramapathiorPrabhu Gavunda.[99]

The Rashtrakuta army consisted of large contingents of infantry, horsemen, and elephants. A standing army was always ready for war in a cantonment (Sthirabhuta Kataka) in the regal capital of Manyakheta. Large armies were also maintained by the feudatory kings who were expected to contribute to the defense of the empire in case of war. Chieftains and all the officials also served as commanders whose postings were transferable if the need arose.[100]

The Rashtrakutas issued coins (minted in anAkkashale) such asSuvarna,Drammasin silver and gold weighing 65grains,Kalanjuweighing 48 grains,Gadyanakaweighing 96 grains,Kasuweighing 15 grains,Manjatiwith 2.5 grains andAkkamof 1.25 grain.[101]

Economy

Main article:Economy of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta
Kashivishvanatha temple atPattadakal,Karnataka

The Rashtrakuta economy was sustained by its natural and agricultural produce, its manufacturing revenues and moneys gained from its conquests. Cotton was the chief crop of the regions of southern Gujarat,Khandeshand Berar. Minnagar, Gujarat,Ujjain,Paithanand Tagara were important centres of textile industry.Muslincloth were manufactured in Paithan andWarangal.The cotton yarn and cloth was exported fromBharoch.Whitecalicoswere manufactured inBurhanpurand Berar and exported toPersia,Byzantines,Khazaria,ArabiaandEgypt.[102]The Konkan region, ruled by the feudatory Silharas, produced large quantities ofbetelleaves, coconut and rice while the lush forests of Mysore, ruled by the feudatoryGangas,produced such woods as sandal, timber, teak and ebony. Incense and perfumes were exported from the ports ofThanaand Saimur.[103]

The Deccan was rich in minerals, though its soil was not as fertile as that of the Gangetic plains. The copper mines ofCudappah,Bellary,Chanda, Buldhana, Narsingpur,Ahmadnagar,Bijapur andDharwarwere an important source of income and played an important role in the economy.[104]Diamonds were mined in Cudappah, Bellary,KurnoolandGolconda;the capital Manyakheta and Devagiri were important diamond and jewellery trading centres. The leather industry and tanning flourished in Gujarat and some regions of northern Maharashtra.Mysorewith its vast elephant herds was important for the ivory industry.[105]

The Rashtrakuta empire controlled most of the western sea board of the subcontinent which facilitated its maritime trade.[103]The Gujarat branch of the empire earned a significant income from the port of Bharoch, one of the most prominent ports in the world at that time.[106]The empire's chief exports were cotton yarn, cotton cloth, muslins, hides, mats, indigo, incense, perfumes,betel nuts,coconuts, sandal, teak, timber, sesame oil and ivory. Its major imports were pearls, gold, dates from Arabia, slaves,Italianwines, tin, lead,topaz,storax,sweet clover, flint glass,antimony,gold and silver coins, singing boys and girls (for the entertainment of the royalty) from other lands. Trading in horses was an important and profitable business, monopolised by the Arabs and some local merchants.[107]The Rashtrakuta government levied a shipping tax of one goldenGadyanakaon all foreign vessels embarking to any other ports and a fee of one silverCtharna( a coin) on vessels travelling locally.[108]

Artists and craftsman operated as corporations (guilds) rather than as individual business. Inscriptions mention guilds of weavers, oilmen, artisans, basket and mat makers and fruit sellers. ASaundattiinscription refers to an assemblage of all the people of a district headed by the guilds of the region.[109]Some guilds were considered superior to others, just as some corporations were, and received royal charters determining their powers and privileges. Inscriptions suggest these guilds had their own militia to protect goods in transit and, like village assemblies, they operated banks that lent money to traders and businesses.[110]

The government's income came from five principal sources: regular taxes, occasional taxes, fines, income taxes, miscellaneous taxes and tributes from feudatories.[111]An emergency tax was imposed occasionally and were applicable when the kingdom was under duress, such as when it faced natural calamities, or was preparing for war or overcoming war's ravages. Income tax included taxes oncrown land,wasteland, specific types of trees considered valuable to the economy, mines, salt, treasures unearthed by prospectors.[112]Additionally, customary presents were given to the king or royal officers on such festive occasions as marriage or the birth of a son.[113]

The king determined the tax levels based on need and circumstances in the kingdom while ensuring that an undue burden was not placed on the peasants.[114]The land owner or tenant paid a variety of taxes, including land taxes, produce taxes and payment of the overhead for maintenance of the Gavunda (village head). Land taxes were varied, based on type of land, its produce and situation and ranged from 8% to 16%. A Banavasi inscription of 941 mentions reassessment of land tax due to the drying up of an old irrigation canal in the region.[115]The land tax may have been as high as 20% to pay for expenses of a military frequently at war.[116]In most of the kingdom, land taxes were paid in goods and services and rarely was cash accepted.[117]A portion of all taxes earned by the government (usually 15%) was returned to the villages for maintenance.[115]

Taxes were levied on artisans such as potters, sheep herders, weavers, oilmen, shopkeepers, stall owners, brewers and gardeners. Taxes on perishable items such as fish, meat, honey, medicine, fruits and essentials like fuel was as high as 16%.[108]Taxes on salt and minerals were mandatory although the empire did not claim sole ownership of mines, implying that private mineral prospecting and the quarrying business may have been active.[118]The state claimed all such properties whose deceased legal owner had no immediate family to make an inheritance claim.[119]Other miscellaneous taxes included ferry and house taxes. Only Brahmins and their temple institutions were taxed at a lower rate.[120]

Culture

Religion

The Rashtrakuta kings supported the popular religions of the day in the traditional spirit of religious tolerance.[121]Scholars have offered various arguments regarding which specific religion the Rashtrakutas favoured, basing their evidence oninscriptions,coins and contemporary literature. Some claim the Rashtrakutas were inclined towardsJainismsince many of the scholars who flourished in their courts and wrote inSanskrit,Kannadaand a few inApabhramshaandPrakritwere Jains.[122]The Rashtrakutas built well-known Jain temples at locations such as Lokapura inBagalkot districtand their loyal feudatory, theWestern Ganga Dynasty,built Jain monuments atShravanabelagolaandKambadahalli.Scholars have suggested that Jainism was a principal religion at the very heart of the empire, modern Karnataka, accounting for more than 30% of the population and dominating the culture of the region.[123]King Amoghavarsha I was a disciple of the JainacharyaJinasenaand wrote in his religious writing,Prashnottara Ratnamalika,"having bowed to Varaddhamana (Mahavira), I write Prashnottara Ratnamalika ". The mathematicianMahaviracharyawrote in hisGanita Sarasangraha,"The subjects under Amoghavarsha are happy and the land yields plenty of grain. May the kingdom of King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha, follower of Jainism ever increase far and wide." Amoghavarsha may have taken up Jainism in his old age.[124][125]

However, the Rashtrakuta kings also patronizedHinduism's followers of theShaiva,VaishnavaandShaktafaiths. Almost all of their inscriptions begin with an invocation to godVishnuor godShiva.TheSanjaninscriptions tell of King Amoghavarsha I sacrificing a finger from his left hand at theLakshmi templeatKolhapurto avert a calamity in his kingdom. King Dantidurga performed theHiranyagarbha(horse sacrifice) and the Sanjan andCambayplates of KingGovinda IVmentionBrahminsperforming such rituals asRajasuya,VajapeyaandAgnishtoma.[126]An earlycopper plate grantof King Dantidurga (753) shows an image of god Shiva and the coins of his successor, King Krishna I (768), bear the legendParama Maheshwara(another name for Shiva). The kings' titles such asVeeranarayanashowed their Vaishnava leanings. Their flag had the sign of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, perhaps copied from the Badami Chalukyas.[127]The famous Kailasnatha temple at Ellora and other rock-cut caves attributed to them show that the Hinduism was flourishing.[126]Their family deity was a goddess by nameLatana(also known asRashtrashyena,ManasaVindyavasini) who took the form of a falcon to save the kingdom.[128]They built temples with icons and ornamentation that satisfied the needs of different faiths. The temple at Salotgi was meant for followers of Shiva and Vishnu and the temple at Kargudri was meant for worshipers of Shiva, Vishnu and Bhaskara (Surya,the sun god).[122]

In short, the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions,Jainism,Vaishnavaism and Shaivism.Buddhismtoo found support and was popular in places such asDambalandBalligavi,although it had declined significantly by this time.[2]The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the 8th century with the spread ofAdi Shankara'sAdvaitaphilosophy.[129]Islamiccontact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms andArablands.JummaMasjidsexisted in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th century[130]and many Muslims lived and mosques flourished on the coasts, specifically in towns such asKayalpattanamandNagore.Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known asMappilas(Moplahs) and were actively involved inhorse tradingand manning shipping fleets.[131]

Society

See also:Society of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta

Chronicles mention morecastesthan the four commonly known castes in the Hindu social system, some as many as seven castes.[132]Al-Biruni,the famed 10th century Persian / central AsianIndologistmentions sixteen castes including the four basic castes ofBrahmins,Kshatriya,VaishyaandSudras.[133]TheZakayaorLahudcaste consisted of communities specialising in dance and acrobatics.[134]People in the professions of sailing, hunting, weaving, cobblery, basket making and fishing belonged to specific castes or subcastes. TheAntyajascaste provided many menial services to the wealthy. Brahmins enjoyed the highest status in Rashtrakuta society; only those Kshatriyas in theSat-Kshatriyasub-caste (noble Kshatriyas) were higher in status.[135][136]

The careers of Brahmins usually related to education, the judiciary, astrology, mathematics, poetry and philosophy[137]or the occupation of hereditary administrative posts.[138]Also Brahmins increasingly practiced non-Brahminical professions (agriculture, trade in betel nuts and martial posts).[139]Capital punishment, although widespread, was not given to the royal Kshatriya sub-castes or to Brahmins found guilty of heinous crimes (as the killing of a Brahmin in medieval Hindu India was itself considered a heinous crime). As an alternate punishment to enforce the law a Brahmin's right hand and left foot was severed, leaving that person disabled.[140]

By the 9th century, kings from all the four castes had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India.[141]Admitting Kshatriyas toVedicschools along with Brahmins was customary, but the children of the Vaishya andShudracastes were not allowed. Landownership by people of all castes is recorded in inscriptions[142]Intercaste marriages in the higher castes were only between highly placed Kshatriya girls and Brahmin boys,[143]but was relatively frequent among other castes.[144]Intercaste functions were rare and dining together between people of various castes was avoided.[145]

Joint families were the norm but legal separations between brothers and even father and son have been recorded in inscriptions.[146]Women and daughters had rights over property and land as there are inscriptions recording the sale of land by women.[147]The arranged marriage system followed a strict policy of early marriage for women. Among Brahmins, boys married at or below 16 years of age and the brides chosen for them were 12 or younger. This age policy was not strictly followed by other castes.[148]Sati(a custom in which a dead man's widow wouldimmolateherself on her husband's funeralpyre) was practiced but the few examples noted in inscriptions were mostly in the royal families.[149]The system of shaving the heads of widows was infrequent as epigraphs note that widows were allowed to grow their hair but decorating it was discouraged.[150]The remarriage of a widow was rare among the upper castes and more accepted among the lower castes.[151]

In the general population men wore two simple pieces of cloth, a loose garment on top and a garment worn like adhotifor the lower part of the body. Only kings could wearturbans,a practice that spread to the masses much later.[152]Dancing was a popular entertainment and inscriptions speak of royal women being charmed by dancers, both male and female, in the king's palace.Devadasis(girls were "married" to a deity or temple) were often present in temples.[153]Other recreational activities included attending animal fights of the same or different species. TheAtakur inscription(hero stone,virgal) was made for the favourite hound of the feudatory Western Ganga King Butuga II that died fighting a wild boar in a hunt.[154]There are records of game preserves for hunting by royalty. Astronomy and astrology were well developed as subjects of study,[154]and there were many superstitious beliefs such as catching a snake alive proved a woman's chastity. Old persons suffering from incurable diseases preferred to end their lives by drowning in the sacred waters of a pilgrim site or by a ritual burning.[155]

Literature

See also:Rashtrakuta literature
Jain Narayana temple atPattadakal,Karnataka

Kannadabecame more prominent as a literary language during the Rashtrakuta rule with its script and literature showing remarkable growth, dignity and productivity.[24][27][29]This period effectively marked the end of the classical Prakrit and Sanskrit era. Court poets and royalty created eminent works in Kannada and Sanskrit that spanned such literary forms as prose, poetry, rhetoric, the Hindu epics and the life history of Jaintirthankars.Bilingual writers such asAsagagained fame,[156]and noted scholars such as theMahaviracharyawrote on pure mathematics in the court of King Amoghavarsha I.[157][158]

Kavirajamarga(850) by KingAmoghavarsha Iis the earliest available book on rhetoric and poetics in Kannada,[67][68]though it is evident from this book that native styles of Kannada composition had already existed in previous centuries.[159]Kavirajamargais a guide to poets (Kavishiksha) that aims to standardize these various styles. The book refers to early Kannada prose and poetry writers such asDurvinita,perhaps the 6th-century monarch ofWestern Ganga dynasty.[160][161][162]

The Jain writerAdikavi Pampa,widely regarded as one of the most influentialKannadawriters, became famous forAdipurana(941). Written inchampu(mixed prose-verse style) style, it is the life history of the first JaintirthankaraRishabhadeva.Pampa's other notable work wasVikramarjuna Vijaya(941), the author's version of the Hindu epic,Mahabharata,withArjunaas the hero.[163]Also calledPampa Bharata,it is a eulogy of the writer's patron, KingChalukyaArikeseri ofVemulawada(a Rashtrakuta feudatory), comparing the king's virtues favorably to those of Arjuna. Pampa demonstrates such a command of classical Kannada that scholars over the centuries have written many interpretations of his work.[164]

Another notable Jain writer in Kannada wasSri Ponna,patronised by King Krishna III and famed forShantipurana,his account of the life of Shantinatha, the 16th Jain tirthankara. He earned the titleUbhaya Kavichakravathi(supreme poet in two languages) for his command over both Kannada and Sanskrit. His other writings in Kannada wereBhuvanaika-ramaabhyudaya,JinaksharamaleandGatapratyagata.[67][165]Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna are called "gems of Kannada literature".[163]

A stanza from the 9th century Kannada classicKavirajamarga,praising the people for their literary skills

Prose works inSanskritwas prolific during this era as well.[27]Important mathematical theories and axioms were postulated byMahaviracharya,a native ofGulbarga,who belonged to the Karnataka mathematical tradition and was patronised by King Amoghavarsha I.[157]His greatest contribution wasGanitasarasangraha,a writing in 9 chapters. Somadevasuri of 950 wrote in the court ofArikesari II,a feudatory of RashtrakutaKrishna IIIinVemulavada.He was the author ofYasastilaka champu,Nitivakyamritaand other writings. The main aim of thechampuwriting was to propagate Jain tenets and ethics. The second writing reviews the subject matter ofArthashastrafrom the standpoint of Jain morals in a clear and pithy manner.[166]Ugraditya, a Jain ascetic from Hanasoge in the modern Mysore district wrote a medical treatise calledKalyanakaraka.He delivered a discourse in the court of Amoghavarsha I encouraging abstinence from animal products and alcohol in medicine.[167][168]

Trivikrama was a noted scholar in the court of King Indra III. His classics wereNalachampu(915), the earliest in champu style in Sanskrit,Damayanti Katha,Madalasachampuand Begumra plates. Legend has it that GoddessSaraswatihelped him in his effort to compete with a rival in the king's court.[166]Jinasenawas the spiritual preceptor andguruofAmoghavarsha I.A theologian, his contributions areDhavalaandJayadhavala(written with another theologianVirasena). These writings are named after their patron king who was also called Athishayadhavala. Other contributions from Jinasena wereAdipurana,later completed by his disciple Gunabhadra,HarivamshaandParshvabhyudaya.[157]

Architecture

Further information:Ellora Caves
Kailasanath Temple at Ellora, Maharashtra

The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the architectural heritage of the Deccan. Art historian Adam Hardy categorizes their building activity into three schools: Ellora, around Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal, and at Sirval near Gulbarga.[169] The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta, areas also occupied by Jain monks, located in present-dayMaharashtra.The Ellora site was originally part of a complex of 34 Buddhist caves probably created in the first half of the 6th century whose structural details showPandyaninfluence. Cave temples occupied by Hindus are from later periods.[170]

The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves and re-dedicated the rock-cut shrines. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples atElloraascribed to his period.[171]The most extensive and sumptuous of the Rashtrakuta works atEllorais their creation of the monolithicKailasanath Temple,a splendid achievement confirming the "Balhara" status as "one among the four principal Kings of the world".[86]The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology includingRavana,ShivaandParvathiwhile the ceilings have paintings.

The Kailasanath Temple project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used isKarnata Dravidaaccording to Adam Hardy. It does not contain any of theShikharascommon to theNagarastyle and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple atPattadakalin Karnataka.[172][173]According to art historian Vincent Smith, the achievement at the Kailasanath temple is considered an architectural consummation of the monolithic rock-cut temple and deserves to be considered one of the wonders of the world.[174]According to art historian Percy Brown, as an accomplishment of art, the Kailasanath temple is considered an unrivalled work of rock architecture, a monument that has always excited and astonished travellers.[175]

Dravidian style architecture. Top view of Navalinga Temples atKuknur,Karnataka

While some scholars have claimed the architecture atElephantais attributable to theKalachuri,others claim that it was built during the Rashtrakuta period.[176]Some of the sculptures such asNatarajaandSadashivaexcel in beauty and craftsmanship even that of the Ellora sculptures.[177]Famous sculptures at Elephanta includeArdhanarishvaraandMaheshamurthy.The latter, a three faced bust of Lord Shiva, is 25 feet (8 m) tall and considered one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India. It is said that, in the world of sculpture, few works of art depicting a divinity are as balanced.[178]

InKarnatakatheir most famous temples are theKashivishvanathatemple and the Jain Narayana temple atPattadakal,aUNESCOWorld Heritage site.[179][180]Other well-known temples are the Parameshwara temple at Konnur, Brahmadeva temple at Savadi, the Settavva, Kontigudi II, Jadaragudi and Ambigeragudi temples atAihole,Mallikarjuna temple at Ron, Andhakeshwara temple at Huli (Hooli), Someshwara temple atSogal,Jain temples at Lokapura,Navalinga templeatKuknur,Kumaraswamy temple at Sandur, numerous temples at Shirival inGulbarga,[181]and theTrikuteshwaratemple atGadagwhich was later expanded byKalyani Chalukyas.Archeological study of these temples show some have the stellar (multigonal) plan later to be used profusely by theHoysalasatBelurandHalebidu.[182]One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time which Adam Hardy callsKarnata dravidastyle as opposed to traditional Dravida style.[183]

Language

9th centuryOld Kannadainscription at Navalinga temple inKuknur,Karnataka

With the ending of theGupta dynastyin northern India in the early 6th century, major changes began taking place in the Deccan south of the Vindyas and in the southern regions of India. These changes were not only political but also linguistic and cultural. The royal courts of peninsular India (outside ofTamilakam) interfaced between the increasing use of the localKannada languageand the expanding Sanskritic culture. Inscriptions, including those that were bilingual, demonstrate the use of Kannada as the primary administrative language in conjunction with Sanskrit.[22][23]Government archives used Kannada for recording pragmatic information relating to grants of land.[184]The local language formed thedesi(popular) literature while literature in Sanskrit was moremarga(formal). Educational institutions and places of higher learning (ghatikas) taught in Sanskrit, the language of the learned Brahmins, while Kannada increasingly became the speech of personal expression of devotional closeness of a worshipper to a private deity. The patronage Kannada received from rich and literate Jains eventually led to its use in thedevotional movementsof later centuries.[185]

Contemporaneous literature and inscriptions show that Kannada was not only popular in the modern Karnataka region but had spread further north into present day southern Maharashtra and to the northern Deccan by the 8th century.[186]Kavirajamarga, the work on poetics, refers to the entire region between theKaveri Riverand theGodavari Riveras "Kannadacountry ".[187][188][189]Higher education in Sanskrit included the subjects ofVeda,Vyakarana(grammar),Jyotisha(astronomy and astrology),Sahitya(literature),Mimansa(Exegesis),Dharmashastra(law),Puranas(ritual), andNyaya(logic). An examination of inscriptions from this period shows that theKavya(classical) style of writing was popular. The awareness of the merits and defects in inscriptions by the archivists indicates that even they, though mediocre poets, had studied standard classical literature in Sanskrit.[190]An inscription in Kannada by KingKrishna III,written in a poetic Kanda metre, has been found as far away asJabalpurin modernMadhya Pradesh.[21]Kavirajamarga, a work on poetics in Kannada byAmoghavarsha I,shows that the study of poetry was popular in the Deccan during this time. Trivikrama's Sanskrit writing,Nalachampu,is perhaps the earliest in thechampustyle from the Deccan.[191]

See also

Notes

  1. ^Keay, John (2000).India: A History.Grove Publication. p. 198.ISBN0802137970.
  2. ^abThe Rise and Decline ofBuddhismin India, K.L. Hazara, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1995, pp288–294
  3. ^Reu (1933), p39
  4. ^Reu(1933), pp1–5
  5. ^Altekar (1934), pp1–32
  6. ^Reu (1933), pp6–9, pp47–53
  7. ^abcKamath (2001), p72–74
  8. ^Reu (1933), p1
  9. ^Kamath (2001), p72
  10. ^Reu (1933), pp1–15
  11. ^abAnirudh Kanisetti (2022).Lords of the Deccan: Southern India from the Chalukyas to the Cholas.India: Juggernaut. p. 193.ISBN978-93-91165-0-55.It is most likely that they were Kannada-speaking military aristocrats settled at a strategic point in modern-day Maharasthra by the Chalukyas or some other powerful group, perhaps to keep an eye on trade routes and various tribal peoples.
  12. ^A Kannada dynasty was created inBerarunder the rule of Badami Chalukyas (Altekar 1934, p21–26)
  13. ^Kamath 2001, p72–3
  14. ^Singh (2008), p556
  15. ^abShetty, Sadanand Ramakrishna (1994).Banavasi Through the Ages.Banavasi (India): Printwell. p. 121.:"The community of the land tillers or agriculturists was known as Vokkaligas. The importance given to the cultivation of land is amply demonstrated by the fact that numerous tanks were dug and irrigation facilities were provided at various places. Some of the Rashtrakuta inscriptions found in the Banavasi province have the depiction of a plow. It is viewed that the Rashtrakutas were originally prosperous cultivators who later dominated the political scene. Some of the inscriptions refer to them as" Kutumbinah "which is interpreted as cultivators."
  16. ^A.C. Burnell in Pandit Reu (1933), p4
  17. ^C.V. Vaidya (1924), p171
  18. ^D.R.Bhandarkar in Reu, (1933), p1, p7
  19. ^Hultzsch and Reu in Reu (1933), p2, p4
  20. ^J. F. Fleetin Reu (1933), p6
  21. ^abKamath (2001), p73
  22. ^abPollock 2006, p332
  23. ^abHouben(1996), p215
  24. ^abAltekar (1934), p411–3
  25. ^Dalby (1998), p300
  26. ^Sen (1999), pp380-381
  27. ^abcDuring the rule of the Rashtrakutas, literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flowered (Kamath 2001, pp 88–90)
  28. ^Even royalty of the empire took part in poetic and literary activities – Thapar (2003), p334
  29. ^abNarasimhacharya (1988), pp17–18, p68
  30. ^Altekar (1934), pp21–24
  31. ^Possibly Dravidian Kannada origin (Karmarkar 1947 p26)
  32. ^Masica (1991), p45-46
  33. ^Rashtrakutas are described as Kannadigas from Lattaluru who encouraged the Kannada language (Chopra, Ravindran, Subrahmanian 2003, p87)
  34. ^Hoiberg and Ramchandani (2000).Rashtrakuta Dynasty.Students Britannica.ISBN978-0-85229-760-5.
  35. ^Reu (1933), p54
  36. ^From Rashtrakuta inscriptions call the Badami Chalukya armyKarnatabala(power ofKarnata) (Kamath 2001, p57, p65)
  37. ^Altekar in Kamath (2001), p72
  38. ^Sastri (1955), p141
  39. ^Thapar (2003), p333
  40. ^abcdSastri (1955), p143
  41. ^Sen (1999), p368
  42. ^Desai and Aiyar in Kamath (2001), p75
  43. ^Reu (1933), p62
  44. ^abSen (1999), p370
  45. ^The Rashtrakutas interfered effectively in the politics of Kannauj (Thapar 2003), p333
  46. ^From the Karda inscription, adigvijaya(Altekar in Kamath 2001, p75)
  47. ^Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978).A Historical atlas of South Asia.Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 31, 146.ISBN0226742210.
  48. ^The ablest of the Rashtrakuta kings (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p77)
  49. ^Modern Morkhandi (MayurkhandiinBidar district(Kamath 2001, p76)
  50. ^modern Morkhand in Maharashtra (Reu 1933, p65)
  51. ^Sooloobunjun near Ellora (Couseris in Altekar 1934, p48). Perhaps Elichpur remained the capital until Amoghavarsha I built Manyakheta. From the Wani-Dmdori, Radhanpur and Kadba plates, Morkhand in Maharashtra was only a military encampment, from the Dhulia and Pimpen plates it seems Nasik was only a seat of a viceroy, and the Paithan plates of Govinda III indicate that neither Latur nor Paithan was the early capital.(Altekar, 1934, pp47–48)
  52. ^Kamath 2001, MCC, p76
  53. ^From the Sanjan inscriptions,Dr. Jyotsna Kamat."The Rashrakutas".1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri.Retrieved20 December2006.
  54. ^abKeay (2000), p199
  55. ^From the Nesari records (Kamath 2001, p76)
  56. ^Reu (1933), p65
  57. ^Sastri (1955), p144
  58. ^Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013), p95,Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 – AD 1124).Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks
  59. ^"The victorious march of his armies had literally embraced all the territory between the Himalayas and Cape Comorin" (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p77)
  60. ^Sen (1999), p371
  61. ^Which could put to shame even the capital of gods-From Karda plates (Altekar 1934, p47)
  62. ^A capital city built to excel that ofIndra(Sastri, 1955, p4, p132, p146)
  63. ^Reu 1933, p71
  64. ^from the Cambay and Sangli records. The Bagumra record claims that Amoghavarsha saved the "Ratta" kingdom which was drowned in an "ocean of Chalukyas" (Kamath 2001, p78)
  65. ^Sastri (1955), p145
  66. ^Narasimhacharya (1988), p1
  67. ^abcKamath (2001), p90
  68. ^abReu (1933), p38
  69. ^Panchamukhi in Kamath (2001), p80
  70. ^abSastri (1955), p161
  71. ^From the writings ofAdikavi Pampa(Kamath 2001, p81)
  72. ^Sen (1999), pp373-374
  73. ^Kamath (2001), p82
  74. ^The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta gained control over Kannauj for a brief period during the early 10th century (Thapar 2003, p333)
  75. ^From the Siddalingamadam record of 944 – Krishna III captured Kanchi and Tanjore as well and had full control over northern Tamil regions (Aiyer in Kamath 2001, pp82–83)
  76. ^From the Tirukkalukkunram inscription – Kanchi and Tanjore were annexed by Krishna III. From the Deoli inscription – Krishna III had feudatories from Himalayas to Ceylon. From the Laksmeshwar inscription – Krishna III was an incarnation of death for the Chola Dynasty (Reu 1933, p83)
  77. ^Conqueror of Kanchi, (Thapar 2003, p334)
  78. ^Conqueror of Kanchi and Tanjore (Sastri 1955, p162)
  79. ^Sen 1999), pp374-375
  80. ^Chandra, Satish (2009).History of Medieval India.New Delhi: Orient Blackswan Private Limited. pp. 19–20.ISBN978-81-250-3226-7.
  81. ^"Amoghavarsha IV".2007 Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved25 April2007.
  82. ^The province of Tardavadi in the very heart of the Rashtrakuta empire was given to Tailapa II as afief(provincial grant) by RashtrakutaKrishna IIIfor services rendered in war (Sastri 1955, p162)
  83. ^Kamath (2001), p101
  84. ^Kamath (2001), pp100–103
  85. ^Reu (1933), p39–41
  86. ^abKeay (2000), p200
  87. ^abKamath (2001), p94
  88. ^Burjor Avari(2007),India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200,pp.207–208, Routledge, New York,ISBN978-0-415-35615-2
  89. ^Reu (1933), p93
  90. ^Reu (1933), p100
  91. ^Reu (1933), p113
  92. ^Reu (1933), p110
  93. ^Jain (2001), pp67–75
  94. ^Reu (1933), p112
  95. ^De Bruyne (1968)
  96. ^Majumdar (1966), pp50–51
  97. ^Pillay, K. (1963).South India and Ceylon.University of Madras.OCLC250247191.
  98. ^whose main responsibility was to draft and maintain inscriptions orShasanasas would an archivist. (Altekar in Kamath (2001), p85
  99. ^Kamath (2001), p86
  100. ^From the notes of Al Masudi (Kamath 2001, p88)
  101. ^Kamath (2001), p88
  102. ^Altekar (1934), p356
  103. ^abAltekar (1934), p354
  104. ^Altekar (1934), p355
  105. ^From notes of Periplus, Al Idrisi and Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p357)
  106. ^Altekar (1934), p358
  107. ^Altekar (1934), p358–359
  108. ^abAltekar (1934), p230
  109. ^Altekar (1934), p368
  110. ^Altekar (1934), p370–371
  111. ^Altekar (1934), p223
  112. ^Altekar (1934), p213
  113. ^From the Davangere inscription of Santivarma of Banavasi-12000 province (Altekar 1934, p234
  114. ^From the writings of Chandesvara (Altekar 1934, p216)
  115. ^abAltekar (1934), p222
  116. ^From the notes of Al Idrisi (Altekar (1934), p223
  117. ^From the Begumra plates of Krishna II (Altekar 1934, p227
  118. ^Altekar (1934), p242
  119. ^From the writings of Somadeva (Altekar 1934, p244)
  120. ^From the Hebbal inscriptions and Torkhede inscriptions of Govinda III (Altekar 1934, p232
  121. ^"Wide and sympathetic tolerance" in general characterised the Rashtrakuta rule (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p92)
  122. ^abKamath (2001), p92
  123. ^Altekar in Kamath (2001), p92
  124. ^Reu (1933), p36
  125. ^The Vaishnava Rashtrakutas patronised Jainism (Kamath 2001, p92)
  126. ^abKamath (2001), p91
  127. ^Reu (1933), p34
  128. ^Reu (1933, p34
  129. ^A 16th-century Buddhist work by Lama Taranatha speaks disparagingly of Shankaracharya as close parallels in some beliefs of Shankaracharya with Buddhist philosophy was not viewed favourably by Buddhist writers (Thapar 2003, pp 349–350, 397)
  130. ^From the notes of 10th-century Arab writer Al-Ishtakhri (Sastri 1955, p396)
  131. ^From the notes of Masudi (916) (Sastri 1955, p396)
  132. ^From the notes of Magasthenesis and Strabo from Greece and Ibn Khurdadba and Al Idrisi from Arabia (Altekar 1934, p317)
  133. ^From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p317)
  134. ^Altekar (1934), p318
  135. ^From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p324)
  136. ^From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, pp330–331)
  137. ^From the notes of Alberuni, Altekar (1934) p325
  138. ^From the notes of Abuzaid (Altekar 1934, p325)
  139. ^From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p326)
  140. ^Altekar (1934), p329
  141. ^From the notes of Yuan Chwang, Altekar (1934), p331
  142. ^From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p332, p334)
  143. ^From the notes of Ibn Khurdadba (Altekar 1934, p337)
  144. ^From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p337)
  145. ^From the notes of Al Masudi and Al Idrisi (Altekar 1934, p339)
  146. ^From the Tarkhede inscription of Govinda III, (Altekar 1934, p339)
  147. ^Altekar (1934), p341
  148. ^From the notes of Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p342)
  149. ^From the notes of Sulaiman and Alberuni (Altekar 1934, p343)
  150. ^Altekar (1934), p345
  151. ^From the notes of Ibn Khurdadba (Altekar 1934, p346)
  152. ^Altekar (1934), p349
  153. ^Altekar (1934), p350
  154. ^abAltekar (1934), p351
  155. ^From the notes of Ibn Kurdadba (Altekar 1934, p353)
  156. ^Warder A.K. (1988), p. 248
  157. ^abcKamath (2001), p89
  158. ^"Mathematical Achievements of Pre-modern Indian Mathematicians", Putta Swamy T.K., 2012, chapter=Mahavira, p.231, Elsevier Publications, London,ISBN978-0-12-397913-1
  159. ^TheBedandeandChattanatype of composition (Narasimhacharya 1988, p12)
  160. ^It is saidKavirajamargamay have been co-authored by Amoghavarsha I and court poet Sri Vijaya (Sastri 1955, pp355–356)
  161. ^Other early writers mentioned inKavirajamargaare Vimala, Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabhandu for Kannada prose and Kavisvara, Pandita, Chandra and Lokapala inKannadapoetry (Narasimhacharya 1988, p2)
  162. ^Warder A.K. (1988), p240
  163. ^abSastri (1955), p356
  164. ^L.S. Seshagiri Rao in Amaresh Datta (1988), p1180
  165. ^Narasimhacharya (1988, p18
  166. ^abSastri (1955), p314
  167. ^S.K. Ramachandra Rao, (1985), Encyclopedia of Indian Medicine: Historical perspective, pp100-101, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai,ISBN81-7154-255-7
  168. ^Narasimhachar (1988), p11
  169. ^Hardy (1995), p111
  170. ^Rajan, K.V. Soundara (1998).Rock-cut Temple Styles'.Mumbai, India: Somaily Publications. pp. 19, 115–116.ISBN81-7039-218-7.
  171. ^Takeo Kamiya."Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent".Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, India.Retrieved18 April2007.
  172. ^Takeo Kamiya."Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent,20 September 1996".Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India.Retrieved10 November2006.
  173. ^Hardy (1995), p327
  174. ^Vincent Smith inArthikaje, Mangalore."Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas".1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived fromthe originalon 4 November 2006.Retrieved20 December2006.
  175. ^Percy Brown and James Fergusson inArthikaje, Mangalore."Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas".1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived fromthe originalon 4 November 2006.Retrieved20 December2006.
  176. ^Kamath (2001), p93
  177. ^Arthikaje inArthikaje, Mangalore."Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas".1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived fromthe originalon 4 November 2006.Retrieved20 December2006.
  178. ^Grousset inArthikaje, Mangalore."Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas".1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived fromthe originalon 4 November 2006.Retrieved20 December2006.
  179. ^Vijapur, Raju S."Reclaiming past glory".Deccan Herald.Spectrum. Archived fromthe originalon 18 May 2008.Retrieved27 February2007.
  180. ^Hardy (1995), p.341
  181. ^Hardy (1995), p344-345
  182. ^Sundara and Rajashekar,Arthikaje, Mangalore."Society, Religion and Economic condition in the period of Rashtrakutas".1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc. Archived fromthe originalon 4 November 2006.Retrieved20 December2006.
  183. ^Hardy (1995), p5 (introduction)
  184. ^Thapar (2002), pp393–4
  185. ^Thapar (2002), p396
  186. ^Vaidya (1924), p170
  187. ^Sastri (1955), p355
  188. ^Rice, E.P. (1921), p12
  189. ^Rice, B.L. (1897), p497
  190. ^Altekar (1934), p404
  191. ^Altekar (1934), p408

References

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