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Chili pepper

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(Redirected fromRed chili)
"Red Chillies" redirects here. For the film, seeRed Chillies(film)."Hot pepper" redirects here. For other uses, seeHot pepper (disambiguation).For the dish often called simply "chili", seeChili con carne.For the band, seeRed Hot Chili Peppers.

Young chili plants

Chili peppers,also spelledchileorchilli[1](fromClassical Nahuatlchīlli[ˈt͡ʃiːlːi]ⓘ), are varieties of theberry-fruitof plants from thegenusCapsicum,which are members of the nightshade familySolanaceae,cultivated for theirpungency.[2]Chili peppers are widely used in many cuisines as aspiceto add "heat" to dishes.Capsaicinand related compounds known ascapsaicinoidsare the substances that give chili peppers their intensity when ingested orapplied topically.Chili peppers exhibit a range of heat and flavors. This diversity is the reason behind the availability of different types ofpaprikaandchili powder,each offering its own taste and heat level.[3]

Chili peppers are believed to have originated in Central or South America[4][5][6]and were first cultivated in Mexico.[7]European explorers brought chili peppers back to theOld Worldin the late 16th century as part of theColumbian Exchange,which led to manycultivarsspreading around the world and finding use in both food andtraditional medicine.This led to a variety of cultivars, including theannuumspecies, with itsglabriusculumvarietyandNew Mexico cultivar group,and the species ofbaccatum,chinense,frutescens,andpubescens.

Cultivars grown in North America and Europe are believed to derive fromCapsicum annuumand have white, yellow, red, or purple to black fruits. In 2019, the world's production of raw green chili peppers amounted to 38 million tons, with China producing half.[8]

History[edit]

Origins[edit]

Capsicumplants originated in modern-dayPeruandBolivia,and have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC.[5][9]They are one of the oldestcultivated cropsin the Americas.[9]Origins of cultivating chili peppers have been traced to east-centralMexicosome 6,000 years ago,[7][10]although, according to researchers at theUniversity of California Berkeleyin 2014, chili plants were first cultivated independently across different locations in the Americas including highland Peru and Bolivia, central Mexico, and theAmazon.[6]They were one of the firstself-pollinatingcrops cultivated in Mexico, Central America,[11]and parts of South America.[9]

Peruhas the highest variety of cultivatedCapsicumdiversity because it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times.[12]The largest diversity of wildCapsicumpeppers is consumed in Bolivia. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms:ulupicas,species with small round fruits includingC. eximium,C. cardenasii,C. eshbaughii,andC. caballeroilandraces; andariviviswith small elongated fruits includingC. baccatumvar.baccatumandC. chacoensevarieties.[12]

Distribution to Europe[edit]

WhenChristopher Columbusand his crew reached the Caribbean, they were the first Europeans to encounterCapsicum.They called them "peppers" because, likeblack pepperof the genusPiperknown in Europe, they have a spicy, hot taste unlike other foods.[13]Chilis were first brought back to Europe by the Spanish, appearing in Spanish records by 1493. Unlike pepper vines of the genusPiperwhich grow in thetropics,chilis could be grown intemperate climates.By the mid-1500s, they had become a common garden plant in Spain and were incorporated into numerous dishes. They also appeared in Italy by 1526, Germany in 1543, and the Balkans by 1569, where it was processed intopaprika.[14][15]

Distribution to the rest of the world[edit]

Chili pepper plant in Ghana

The rapid introduction of chilis to Africa and Asia was likely through thePortugueseandSpanish tradersin the 16th century, though the details are unrecorded. The Portuguese introduced it first to Africa and Arabia, and then to their colonies and trading posts in Asia, includingGoa,Sri Lanka,andMalacca.From there, it spread to neighboring regions in South Asia and western Southeast Asia via local trade and natural dispersal. At around the same time, the Spanish also introduced chilis to the Philippines, where it spread toMelanesia,Micronesia,and otherPacific Islandsvia their monopoly of theManila galleons.Their spread to East Asia in the late 16th century is less clear, but was likely also through local trade or through Portuguese and Spanish trading ports inCanton, China,andNagasaki,Japan.[16][14][17][15][18][19]The earliest known mention of the chili pepper in Chinese writing dates to 1591, though the pepper is thought to have entered the country in the 1570s.[20]

Production[edit]

Production of chillies and peppers, green – 2020
Region (Millions of
tons)
China 16.7
Mexico 2.8
Indonesia 2.8
Turkey 2.6
Spain 1.5
World 36.1
Source:FAOSTATof theUnited Nations[21]

In 2020, 36 milliontonnesof green chilies and peppers (counted as anyCapsicumorPimentafruits) were produced worldwide, with China producing 46% of the total.[21]

Species and cultivars[edit]

See also:List of Capsicum cultivars
Cayenne peppers,a cultivar ofCapsicum annuum,one of the most diverse and commonly grown chili species
Tabasco peppers,like otherCapsicum frutescenscultivars, characteristically bear fruits pointing upwards
Capsicum chinense,likeHabanero peppers,include the hottest chili cultivars

There are five domesticated species of chili peppers:

  1. Capsicum annuumincludes many common varieties such asbell peppers,wax,cayenne,jalapeños,Thaipeppers,chiltepin,and all forms ofNew Mexico chile.
  2. Capsicum frutescensincludestabasco,malagueta,labuyo,piri piri,andkambuzi.
  3. Capsicum chinenseincludes the hottest peppers such as thenaga,habanero,DatilandScotch bonnet.
  4. Capsicum pubescensincludes the South Americanrocotopeppers.
  5. Capsicum baccatumincludes the South Americanaji peppers.[22]

Though there are only a few commonly used species, there are many cultivars and methods of preparing chili peppers that have different names for culinary use. Green and redbell peppers,for example, are the same cultivar ofC. annuum.Unripe peppers are green (although peppers that do not turn red on ripening have been bred). In the same species are the jalapeño, thepoblano(which, when dried, is referred to as ancho),New Mexico,serrano,and other cultivars.[citation needed]

Peppers are commonly broken down into two groupings: bell peppers (UK: sweet peppers) and hot peppers. Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories or a cross between them.[citation needed]

Intensity[edit]

See also:Hottest chili pepper

The substances that give chili peppers theirpungency(spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically arecapsaicin(8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively calledcapsaicinoids.[23][24]The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and depends on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger pods. When ahabaneroplant is stressed, by absorbing low water for example, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.[25]

When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds withpain receptorsin the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to thebrainstemandthalamuswhere heat and discomfort are perceived.[26]However, birds are unable to perceive the hotness and so they can eat some of the hottest peppers. The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported inScoville heat units(SHU), invented by American pharmacistWilbur Scovillein 1912. Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating.[27]The modern method is aquantitative analysisof SHU usinghigh-performance liquid chromatography(HPLC) to directly measure the capsaicinoid content of a chili pepper variety. Pure capsaicin is ahydrophobic,colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature, and measures 16,000,000 SHU.

Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a defense against mammalian predators andmicrobes,in particular afusariumfungus carried byhemipteraninsects that attack certain species of chili peppers, according to one study.[28]Peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungal predation on the plant's seeds.[28]

Common peppers[edit]

A wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers:

Bell pepper 0 SHU
Fresno,jalapeño 3,500–10,000 SHU
Cayenne 30,000–50,000 SHU
Piri piri,bird's eye 50,000–100,000 SHU
Habanero,Scotch bonnet 100,000–350,000 SHU[29]

Notable hot chili peppers[edit]

Red Bhut Jolokia and green bird's eye chilies
Green chili

The top 8 world's hottest chili peppers (by country) are:

Country Type Hotness
United States Pepper X 2.69M SHU[30]
Wales Dragon's Breath 2.48M SHU*[31]
United States Carolina Reaper 2.2M SHU[32]
Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad moruga scorpion 2.0M SHU*[33]
India Ghost pepper(Bhut jolokia) 1.58M SHU[34]
Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad Scorpion Butch T 1.46M SHU[35]
England Naga Viper 1.38M SHU[36]
England Infinity chili 1.07M SHU[37]

NOTE: SHU claims marked with an asterisk (*) have not been confirmed by Guinness World Records.[38]

Uses[edit]

Culinary[edit]

Smoke-dried chipotle

Due to their uniquepungency,chili peppers constitute a crucial part of many cuisines around the world, particularly in Chinese (especially in Sichuanese food), Mexican, Thai, Indian,New Mexican cuisineand many other South American, Caribbean and East Asian cuisines. In 21st-centuryAsian cuisine,chili peppers are commonly used across many regions.[39][40]

Chili pepper pods are botanicallyberries.When used fresh, they are most often prepared and eaten like a vegetable. Whole pods can be dried and then crushed or ground intochili powderthat is used as a spice or seasoning. Chilies can be dried to prolong their shelf life. Chili peppers can also be preserved by brining, immersing the pods in oil, or bypickling.

Many fresh chilies such aspoblanohave a tough outer skin that does not break down on cooking. Chilies are sometimes used whole or in large slices, byroasting,or other means of blistering or charring the skin, so as not to entirely cook the flesh beneath. When cooled, the skins will usually slip off easily.

Filipinotinolachicken soup withlabuyochili leaves

The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible. Though almost all otherSolanaceouscrops have toxins in their leaves, chili peppers do not.[citation needed]The leaves, which are mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruit, are cooked asgreensin Filipino cuisine, where they are calleddahon ng sili(literally "chili leaves" ). They are used in the chicken souptinola.[41]In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used inkimchi.[42]In Japanese cuisine, the leaves are cooked as greens, and also cooked intsukudanistyle for preservation.

ManyMexican dishes,including variations onchiles rellenos,use the entire chili. Dried whole chilies may be reconstituted before grinding to a paste. Thechipotleis the smoked, dried, ripejalapeño.In the northern Mexican states ofSinaloaandSonora,chiltepin peppers(a wild pepper) are used in cheeses and soups to add spiciness to dishes. In southern Mexico,mole sauceis made with dried chiles, such asanchoand chipotle peppers. Chiles are used insalsas.Mexican households usually grow chile plants to use in cooking.

Chilies at a market in India

In India, most households always keep a stock of fresh hot green chilies at hand, and use them to flavor most curries and dry dishes.

Chili is a staple fruit inBhutan.Bhutanese call this cropema(in Dzongkha) orsolo(in Sharchop). Theema datshirecipe is entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese.

Chilies are present in many cuisines. Some notable chili dishes includearrabbiata sauce,paprikash,chiles en nogada,jerk chicken,mole poblano,nam phrik,'nduja,sambal,andsom tam.

Fresh or dried chilies are often used to makehot sauce,a liquidcondiment—usually bottled when commercially available—that adds spice to other dishes. Hot sauces are found in many cuisines includingharissafrom North Africa,chili oilfrom China (known as rāyu in Japan), andsrirachafrom Thailand. Dried chilies are also used to infuse cooking oil.

Ornamental plants[edit]

The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as a purely decorative garden plant.

  • Black pearl pepper:small cherry-shaped fruits and dark brown to black leaves
    Black Pearl Pepper.
    Black pearl pepper
  • Black Hungarian pepper: green foliage, highlighted by purple veins and purple flowers, jalapeño-shaped fruits[43]
  • Bishop's crown pepper,Christmas bell pepper: named for its distinct three-sided shape resembling a red bishop's crown or a red Christmas bell[44]

Psychology[edit]

PsychologistPaul Rozinsuggests that eating chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding aroller coaster,in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm.[45]

Topical use and health research[edit]

Capsaicin,thepungentchemical in chili peppers, is used as ananalgesicintopical ointments,nasal sprays,anddermal patchesto relieve pain.[46]A 2022 review of preliminary research indicated that regular consumption of chili peppers was associated with weak evidence for a lower risk of death fromcardiovascular diseasesandcancer.[47]

Chemical irritants[edit]

Main article:Pepper spray

Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used inpepper spraysand sometear gasformulations as a chemical irritant, for use asless-lethal weaponsfor control of unruly individuals or crowds.[48]Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death.[48]

Crop defense[edit]

Conflictsbetween farmers and elephants have long been widespread inAfricanandAsiancountries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin. Because the elephants have a large and sensitiveolfactoryand nasal system, the smell of the chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chili dung bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mi xing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.[49]

Food defense[edit]

Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin, because it targets a specificpain receptorin mammals. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers, as a bird in flight can spread the seeds further away from the parent plant after they pass through its digestive system than any land or tree dwelling mammal could do so under the same circumstances, thus reducing competition for resources.[50]

Nutritional value[edit]

Peppers, hot chili, red, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy166 kJ (40 kcal)
8.8 g
Sugars5.3 g
Dietary fiber1.5 g
0.4 g
1.9 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
5%
48 μg
5%
534 μg
Vitamin B6
30%
0.51 mg
Vitamin C
160%
144 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Iron
6%
1 mg
Magnesium
5%
23 mg
Potassium
11%
322 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water88 g
Capsaicin0.01g – 6 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[51]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[52]

Red hot chili peppers are 88% water, 9%carbohydrates,2%protein,and 0.4%fat(table). In a 100 gram reference amount, chili peppers supply 40calories,and are a rich source ofvitamin Candvitamin B6(table).

Spelling and usage[edit]

The three primary spellings arechili,chileandchilli,all of which are recognized by dictionaries.

  • Chiliis widely used in English of the United States[53]and optionally in Canada.[54]However, it is also commonly used as a short name forchili con carne(literally "chili with meat" ),[53]most versions of which are seasoned withchili powder,which in turn can refer to pure dried, ground chili peppers, or to a mixture containing other spices.
  • Chileis the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries,[55]as well as some parts of the United States[56]which refers specifically to this plant and its fruit. In the Southwest United States (particularly New Mexico),chilealso denotes a thick, spicy, un-vinegared sauce made from this fruit, available in red and green varieties, and served over the local food, whilechilidenotes the meat dish. The plural ischileorchiles.
  • Chilliwas the originalRomanizationof theNáhuatl languageword for the fruit (chilli)[57]and is the preferred British spelling according to theOxford English Dictionary,although it also listschileandchilias variants.[57]Chilli(and its pluralchillies) is the most common spelling in India,[58]Sri Lanka,[59]Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore, South Africa, and variably in Canada.

The name of the plant is unrelated to that ofChile,[57]the country, which has an uncertain etymology perhaps relating to local place names. Certain Spanish-speaking countries inSouth Americaand the Caribbean, including Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Dominican Republic, Venezuela andPuerto Rico,call the peppersají,a word ofTaínoorigin.

Thoughpepperoriginally referred to the genusPiper,notCapsicum,the latter usage is included in English dictionaries, including theOxford English Dictionary[60]andMerriam-Webster.[61]The wordpepperis also commonly used in the botanical and culinary fields in the names of different types of pungent plants and their fruits.[60]

Safety[edit]

Thevolatile oilin spicy peppers may cause skin irritation, requiring hand washing and care when touching the eyes or any sensitive body parts.[62]Consuming hot peppers may cause stomach pain,hyperventilation,sweating,vomiting,and symptoms possibly requiring hospitalization.[citation needed]

Gallery[edit]

  • Illustration from the Japanese agricultural encyclopedia Seikei Zusetsu (1804)
    Illustration from the Japanese agricultural encyclopediaSeikei Zusetsu(1804)
  • The habanero pepper
    Thehabaneropepper
  • Buds and flowers
    Buds and flowers
  • Immature chilies in the field
    Immature chilies in the field
  • Ripe chilies in the field, Myanmar
    Ripe chilies in the field, Myanmar
  • The Black Pearl cultivar
    The Black Pearl cultivar
  • Cubanelle peppers
    Cubanelle peppers
  • Ripe chili pepper with seeds
    Ripe chili pepper with seeds
  • Scotch bonnet chili peppers in a Caribbean market
    Scotch bonnet chili peppers in a Caribbean market
  • Chili peppers drying in Kathmandu, Nepal
    Chili peppers drying in Kathmandu, Nepal
  • Removing seeds and pith from dried chilies in San Pedro Atocpan, Mexico
    Removing seeds and pith from dried chilies inSan Pedro Atocpan,Mexico
  • Dried chili pepper flakes and fresh chilies
    Dried chili pepper flakes and fresh chilies
  • Chili pepper dip in a traditional restaurant in Amman, Jordan
    Chili pepper dip in a traditional restaurant in Amman, Jordan
  • Dried Thai bird's eye chilies
    Dried Thaibird's eye chilies
  • Green chilies
    Green chilies
  • Guntur chilli drying in the sun, Andhra Pradesh, India
    Guntur chillidrying in the sun,Andhra Pradesh,India
  • Sundried chili at Imogiri, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
    Sundried chili atImogiri,Yogyakarta, Indonesia
  • New Mexico chiles dried on the plant in Mesilla, New Mexico
    New Mexico chilesdried on the plant inMesilla, New Mexico
  • Chili pepper wine from Virginia
    Chili pepper wine from Virginia
  • Chili peppers drying in hanging ristras
    Ristrasof chili peppers drying inArizona
  • White flower of chili paper at night
    White flower of chili paper at night
  • Choricero peppers
    Choricero peppers
  • Pickled chili in India
    Pickled chili in India
  • Peperoncino chili in Tropea, Italy, with a sign saying il viagra calabrese ("the Calabrian viagra")
    Peperoncinochili inTropea,Italy, with a sign sayingil viagra calabrese( "the Calabrianviagra")
  • Chili peppers cultivated in Myanmar
    Chili peppers cultivated in Myanmar
  • Dried chili pepper flakes, Myanmar
    Dried chili pepper flakes, Myanmar
  • Green Chillies from North India. They are used as spice in many Indian dishes.
    Green Chillies from North India. They are used as spice in many Indian dishes.
  • Cheongyang chili pepper from Cheongyang County, South Chungcheong Province, South Korea
    Cheongyang chili pepperfromCheongyang County,South Chungcheong Province,South Korea
  • Chili pepper in Ghana
    Chili pepper in Ghana
  • Green chili
    Green chili

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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Bibliogrpahy[edit]

  • Brian R. Dott (2020).The Chile Pepper in China.Columbia University Press.ISBN9780231551304.

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

Look upchiliin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
WikibooksCookbookhas a recipe/module on
Wikimedia Commons has media related toCapsicum.
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