Religion and sexuality

For other uses, seeReligion and sexuality (disambiguation).

Erotic sculptures fromKhajuraho temple complex,India

The views of the various differentreligionsand religious believers regardinghuman sexualityrange widely among and within them, from givingsexandsexualitya rather negative connotation to believing that sex is the highest expression of the divine.Some religions distinguish betweenhuman sexual activitiesthat are practised forbiological reproduction(sometimes allowed only when in formalmarital statusand at acertain age) and those practised only for sexual pleasure in evaluating relative morality.

Overview

Sexual moralityhas varied greatly over time and between cultures. A society'ssexual norms—standards of sexual conduct—can be linked to religious beliefs, or social and environmental conditions, or all of these. Sexuality and reproduction are fundamental elements in human interaction and societies worldwide. Furthermore, "sexual restriction" is one of theuniversals of culturepeculiar to all human societies.

Accordingly, most religions have seen a need to address the question of a "proper" role forsexuality.Religions have differing codes of sexual morality, which regulate sexual activity or assign normative values to certain sexually charged actions or ideas. Each major religion has developed amoral codecovering issues ofhuman sexuality,morality,ethics,etc. These moral codes seek to regulate the situations that can give rise to sexual interest and to influence people'ssexual activitiesand practices.

Abrahamic religions

Abrahamic religions(namelyJudaism,Samaritanism,Christianity,theBaháʼí Faith,andIslam) have traditionally affirmed and endorsed apatriarchalandheteronormativeapproach towardshuman sexuality.

Catholicismin particular favours exclusivelypenetrative vaginal intercourse between men and womenwithin the boundaries ofmarriageover all other forms ofhuman sexual activity,includingautoeroticism,masturbation,anal sex,oral sex,non-penetrativeandnon-heterosexualsexual intercourse (all of which have been labeled as "sodomy"at various times),believing and teaching that such behaviors are forbidden because they're consideredsinful,and further compared to or derived from the alleged behavior of the residents ofSodom and Gomorrah.However, the status of LGBT people inearly Christianityandearly Islamis debated.

Baháʼí Faith

In theBaháʼí Faith,sexual relationships are permitted only between a husband and wife.Bahá'u'lláh,the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, forbids extramarital sexual intercourse in his book of laws; theKitáb-i-Aqdas.He developed the belief that all humans are spiritual individuals that help develop and further the advancement of society physically and spiritually.The Baháʼí consideration of sex is thatchastityshould be practiced by both sexes before marriage because it is commendable ethically and leads to a happy and successful marital life. The Baháʼí Faith recognizes the value of the sex impulse, but judges that its proper expression is within theinstitution of marriage:Baháʼís do not believe in suppression of the sex impulse but in its regulation and control.

Christianity

Main category:Sexuality in Christianity

See also:Fornication,Christianity and sexual orientation,Homosexuality and Christianity,andPhallic saints

TheOld TestamentandChristianityhave historically affirmed and endorsed apatriarchalandheteronormativeapproach towardshuman sexuality,favouring exclusivelypenetrative vaginal intercourse between men and womenwithin the boundaries ofmarriageover all other forms ofhuman sexual activity,includingautoeroticism,masturbation,anal sex,oral sex,non-penetrativeandnon-heterosexualsexual intercourse (all of which have been labeled as "sodomy"at various times),believing and teaching that such behaviors are forbidden because they're consideredsinful,and further compared to or derived from the behavior of the alleged residents ofSodom and Gomorrah.

In theNew Testament,Jesusdiscussed little aboutsex,and most of the information about sex comes from theOld TestamentandPaul's writings,and some are controversial today.

Sexuality carried out betweendifferent sexes,between 2 people (Monogamy,althoughpolygamyis not forbidden) and in particularprocreation,is generally understood as the ideal state.

There isconjugal lovethroughSong of Songsin which it is abouteroticismandromance.

New Testament

Paul the Apostlestated in1 Corinthians"To the unmarried and the widows I say that it is well for them to remain unmarried as I am. But if they are not practising self-control, they should marry. For it is better to marry than to be aflame with passion."Importantly, Paul's view of sex is also that it is actually unnecessary for those with certain gifts(presumably"celibacy").Jennifer Wright Knustsays Paul framed desire a force Christians gained control over whereas non-Christians were "enslaved" by it.Further, Paul says the bodies of Christians were members ofChrist's bodyand thus sexual desire must be eschewed.

New Testament scholarN. T. Wrightasserts that Paul absolutely forbade fornication, irrespective of a new Christian's former cultural practices. Wright notes "If a Corinthian were to say, 'Because I'm a Corinthian, I have always had a string of girl-friends I sleep with, that's part of our culture,' Paul would respond, 'Not now you're a Christian you don't.'... When someone disagreed with Paul's clear rules on immorality or angry disputes, the matters he deals with in Colossians 3.5–10, he is... firm, as we see dramatically in 1 Corinthians 5 and 6. There is no place in the Christian fellowship for such practices and for such a person."

Some have suggested that Paul's treatment of sex was influenced by his conviction that theend of the worldwas imminent. Under this view, Paul, believing that the world would soon end, took it as a corollary that all earthly concerns,including sex, should hold little interest for Christians.Paul's lettersshow far greater concern with sexual issues than the gospel writers attributed to Jesus, since Paul was building Christian communities over decades and responding to various issues that arose.

The theologian Lee Gatiss states that "the word 'fornication' has gone out of fashion and is not in common use to describe non-marital sex. However, it is an excellent translation for [the Biblical term]porneíā,which basically referred to any kind of sex outside of marriage... This has been contested... but the overwhelming weight of scholarship and all the available evidence from the ancient world points firmly in this direction. 'Flee sexual immorality (porneíā) and pursue self-control' (cf. 1 Thess 4:1–8) was the straightforward message to Christians in a sex-crazed world. "

Early Christianity

Inearly Christianity,reflection on scriptural texts introduced aneschatologicalhermeneuticto the reading of theBook of Genesis.TheGarden of Edenwas seen as a normative ideal state to which Christians were to strive; writers linked the future enjoyment ofHeavento the original blessedness of Adam and Eve in their reflections.

The valuation ofvirginityin the ancient church brought into relief a tension between the Genesis injunction to "be fruitful and multiply"with its understood contextual implication of marriage as a social institution, and the interpretation of the superiority of virginity over marriage, sexual activity and family formation from the Gospel textsMatt 19:11-12,Matt 19:29.One way patristic thinkers tried to harmonize the texts was through the position that there had actually been no sexual intercourse in Eden: on this reading, sex happened after thefall of manand the expulsion from Eden, thus preserving virginity as the perfect state both in the historicalParadiseand the anticipated Heaven.John Chrysostom,Gregory of Nyssa,Justin Martyr,Epiphanius of Salamis,andIrenaeus of Lyonsall espoused this view:

• Gregory of Nyssa,On Virginity,12 "He did not yet judge of what was lovely by taste or sight; he found in the Lord alone all that was sweet; and he used the helpmeet given him only for this delight, as Scripture signifies when it said that 'he knew her not' till he was driven forth from the garden, and till she, for the sin which she was decoyed into committing, was sentenced to the pangs of childbirth. We, then, who in our first ancestor were thus ejected, are allowed to return to our earliest state of blessedness by the very same stages by which we lost Paradise. What are they? Pleasure, craftily offered, began the Fall, and there followed after pleasure shame, and fear, even to remain longer in the sight of their Creator, so that they hid themselves in leaves and shade; and after that they covered themselves with the skins of dead animals; and then were sent forth into this pestilential and exacting land where, as the compensation for having to die, marriage was instituted".
• John Chrysostom,On Virginity,14.3 "When the whole world had been completed and all had been readied for our repose and use, God fashioned man for whom he made the world... Man did need a helper, and she came into being; not even then did marriage seem necessary... Desire for sexual intercourse, conception, labor, childbirth, and every form of corruption had been banished from their souls. As a clear river shooting forth from a pure source, so they were in that place adorned by virginity." 15.2 "Why did marriage not appear before the treachery? Why was there no intercourse in paradise? Why not the pains of childbirth before the curse? Because at that time these things were superfluous."
• Irenaeus,Against Heresies,Book 3, ch 22:4 "But Eve was disobedient; for she did not obey when as yet she was a virgin. And even as she, having indeed a husband, Adam, but being nevertheless as yet a virgin (for in Paradise they were both naked, and were not ashamed, inasmuch as they, having been created a short time previously, had no understanding of the procreation of children: for it was necessary that they should first come to adult age, and then multiply from that time onward), having become disobedient, was made the cause of death, both to herself and to the entire human race..."
• Epiphanius of Salamis,Panarion,78.17–19 "And as in paradise Eve, still a virgin, fell into the sin of disobedience, once more through the Virgin [Mary] came the obedience of grace."
• Justin Martyr,Dialogue with Trypho,ch 100 "For Eve, who was a virgin and undefiled, having conceived the word of the serpent, brought forth disobedience and death. But the Virgin Mary received faith and joy, when the angel Gabriel announced the good tidings to her..."

Prof. John Noonan suggests that "if one asks... where the Christian Fathers derived their notions on marital intercourse – notions which have no express biblical basis – the answer must be, chiefly from theStoics".He uses texts fromMusonius Rufus,Seneca the Younger,andOcellus Lucanus,tracing works ofClement of Alexandria,OrigenandJerometo the works of these earlier thinkers,particularly as pertaining to the permissible use of the sexual act, which in the Stoic model must be subdued, dispassionate, and justified by its procreativeintent.

Augustine of Hippohad a different challenge: to respond to the errors ofManichaeism.The Manichees, according to Augustine, were "opposed to marriage, because they are opposed to procreation which is the purpose of marriage"."The method ofcontraceptionpractised by these Manichees whom Augustine knew is the use of the sterile period as determined by Greek medicine ",which Augustine condemns (this stands in contrast to the contemporarily permitted Catholic use ofNatural family planning).Elaine Pagelssays, "By the beginning of the fifth century, Augustine had actually declared that spontaneous sexual desire is the proof of—and penalty for—universal original sin", though that this view goes against "most of his Christian predecessors".

As monastic communities developed, the sexual lives of monks came under scrutiny from two theologians,John CassianandCaesarius of Arles,who commented on the "vices" of the solitary life. "Their concerns were not with the act of masturbation, but with the monks who vowed chastity. The monks' vow made masturbation an illicit act; the act itself was not considered sinful... In fact... prior to Cassian, masturbation was not considered a sexual offence for anyone."

Catholicism

Main article:Catholic theology of sexuality

See also:Theology of the BodyandReligious views on masturbation

From the beginning of the thirteenth century, the Catholic Church formally recognizedmarriage between a freely consenting, baptized man and womanas asacrament– an outward sign communicating a special gift of God's love. TheCouncil of Florencein 1438 gave this definition, following earlier church statements in 1208, and declared that sexual union was a special participation in the union of Christ in the church.However thePuritans,while highly valuing the institution, viewed marriage as a "civil", rather than a "religious" matter, being "under the jurisdiction of the civil courts".This is because they found no biblical precedent for clergy performing marriage ceremonies. Further, marriage was said to be for the "relief ofconcupiscence"as well as any spiritual purpose.

The Catholic moral theologianCharles E. Curranstated "the fathers of the Church are practically silent on the simple question of masturbation".

TheCatechism of the Catholic Churchteaches that "the flesh is the hinge of salvation".TheCatechismindicates that sexual relationships in marriage is "a way of imitating in the flesh the Creator's generosity and fecundity"and lists fornication as one of the "offenses against chastity",calling it "an intrinsically and gravely disordered action" because "use of the sexual faculty, for whatever reason, outside of marriage is essentially contrary to its purpose".The "conjugal act" aims "at a deeply personal unity, a unity that, beyond union in one flesh, leads to forming one heart and soul"since the marriage bond is to be a sign of the love between God and humanity.

Pope John Paul II's first major teaching was on thetheology of the body,presented in a series oflectures by the same name.Over the course of five years he elucidated a vision of sex that was not only positive and affirming but was about redemption, not condemnation. He taught that by understanding God's plan for physical love we could understand "the meaning of the whole of existence, the meaning of life."He taught that human beings were created by a loving God for a purpose: to be loving persons who freely choose to love, to give themselves as persons who express their self-giving through their bodies. Thus, sexual intercourse between husband and wife is asymbolof their total mutual self-donation.

For John Paul II, "The body, and it alone, is capable of making visible what is invisible: the spiritual and divine." He says there is no other more perfectimageof the unity and communion of God in mutual love than the sexual act of a married couple, whereby they give themselves in a total way – exclusively to one another, and up to the end of their lives, and in a fruitfully generous way by participating in thecreationof new human beings. Through this perspective, he understands the immorality of extra-marital sex. It falsifies the language of the human body, a language of total love worthy of persons by using the body for selfish ends, thus treating persons as things and objects, rather than dealing with embodied persons with the reverence and love that incarnate spirits deserve. John Paul II stresses that there is greatbeautyin sexual love when done inharmonywith the human values of freely chosen total commitment and self-giving. For him, this sexual love is a form ofworship,an experience of thesacred.

Roman Catholics believe that masturbation is a sin.

In September 2015, the Vatican's Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, responsible for enforcing Catholic doctrine, did not permit a transgender man in Spain to serve as a godfather effectively barring transgender Catholics from serving as a baptismal sponsors. The statement concluded: "[...] the result is evident that this person does not possess the requisite of leading a life conformed to the faith and to the position of godfather (CIC, can 874 §1,3), therefore is not able to be admitted to the position of godmother nor godfather. One should not see this as discrimination, but only the recognition of an objective absence of the requisites that by their nature are necessary to assume the ecclesial responsibility of being a godparent."

Protestantism

Main article:Fornication § Mainstream Protestantism

Laws againstadulteryin the United States in 1996 and when these laws were enacted

Views over sexuality inProtestantchurches differ.

Conservative evangelical Protestant churches

Some Protestants assert that any and all sex outside of marriage, including that conducted between committed, engaged or cohabiting couples, is the sin of fornication.

Unlike Roman Catholics, Protestants do not disapprove ofmasturbationdue to the lack of a Biblical injunction against the act. Mainstreamand conservativeProtestants agree masturbation is not a sin, although there are various restrictions, such as making sure it does not lead to use of pornography or looking lustfully at people or mutual masturbation or addiction to the act. It must also not be undertaken in a spirit of defiance against God.

Lutheran, Reformed, and United churches

All 20Lutheran,Reformed,andUnitedchurches of theEvangelical Church in Germanywelcome LGBT members,as well as theProtestant Church in the Netherlands.In these Lutheran, United, and Reformed churches gay ministers are permitted in ministry and gay married couples are allowed in their churches.

More recently, the United Methodist Church has seen somewhat of a divide over the subject of human sexuality. The 2019 General Conference Special Session met, hoping to resolve the ongoing division regarding the homosexual community.This topic was first debated at a General Conference in 1972, resulting in a statement that the church "does not condone the practice of homosexuality and considers this practice incompatible with Christian teaching."While the church still believes that church-goers should not "reject or condemn" those in the LGBTQ community, their statement still remains and additionally restricts their pastors from being "self-avowed, practicing homosexuals."With uncertainty about what the Church will look like in the future, calls for individual churches to separate from the United Methodist denomination have increased. The COVID-19 pandemic moved the original 2020 General Conference to 2024, when those present plan to address the possibility of altering the existing policies.

Inside the LutheranChurch of Sweden,the Bishop of Stockholm,Eva Brunneis alesbianin a registered partnership with Gunilla Lindén, who is also an ordained priest of the Church of Sweden.

Anglicanism

TheAnglican Churchupholds human sexuality as a gift from a loving God, designed to be between a man and a woman in a monogamous, lifetime union of marriage. It also recognises singleness and dedicated celibacy as Christ-like. It reassures people with same-sex attraction they are loved by God, and are welcomed as full members of theBody of Christ.The church leadership has a variety of views in regard to homosexual expression and ordination. Some expressions of sexuality are considered sinful, including "promiscuity, prostitution, incest, pornography, paedophilia, predatory sexual behaviour, and sadomasochism (all of which may be heterosexual and homosexual), adultery, violence against wives, and female circumcision." The church is concerned with pressures on young people to engage sexually and encourages abstinence.

In the Anglican Church, there is a large discussion over the blessing of gay couples, and over tolerance of homosexuality. The discussion is more about the aspect of love between two people of the same-sex in a relationship than it is about the sexual aspect of a relationship.

Metropolitan Community Church

TheMetropolitan Community Church,also known as the Universal Fellowship of Metropolitan Community Churches, has a specific outreach to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender families and communities.

Latter Day Saints movement

Main article:Sexuality and Mormonism

See also:Masturbation and the LDS Church,Homosexuality and the LDS Church,Mormonism and polygamy,andBirth control and the LDS Church

Within the many branches of theLatter Day Saints movement,the principal denomination,The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints(LDS Church), teaches conservative views aroundsexual ethicsin theirLaw of Chastity,which holds that masturbation, pre- and extra-marital sex, and same-sex sexual activity are sins. In the mid-1800s, however, it was allowed for men to be married to and have children with several women, and this was also discontinued in the late 1800s. On various occasions,LDS Church leaders have taught that members should not masturbateas part of obedience to the LDSlaw of chastity.The LDS Church believes that sex outside of opposite-sex marriage is sinful, and that any same-sex sexual activity is a serious sin.God is believed to be in a heterosexual marriage with theHeavenly Mother,and Mormons believe that opposite-sex marriage is what God wants for all his children. Top LDS Church leaders formerly taught that attractions to those of the same sex were a sin or disease that could be changed or fixed,but now have no stance on the etiologyof homosexuality, and teach that therapy focused on changing sexual orientation is unethical.Lesbian, gay, and bisexual members are, thus, left with the option of attempting tochange their sexual orientation,entering amixed-orientation opposite-sex marriage,or living acelibatelifestyle without any sexual expression (includingmasturbation).

The LDS Church teaches that women's principal role is to raise children. Women who rejected this role as being a domestic woman in the home, were seen as unstable and corrupted.Before 1890, the Mormon leaders taught that polygamy was a way to salvation, and many had multiple wives into the early 1900s, and some women practiced polyandry.

The Mormon religion teaches that marriage should be with a man and a woman. The LDS Church teaches its members to obey the law of chastity, which says that "sexual relations are proper only between a man and a woman who are legally and lawfully wedded as husband and wife." Violations of this code include: "adultery, being without natural affection, lustfulness, infidelity, incontinence, filthy communications, impurity, inordinate affection, fornication." The traditional Mormon religion forbids all homosexual behavior, whether it be intra-marriage or extramarital. In Romans 1:24-32, Paul preached to the Romans that homosexual behavior was sinful. In Leviticus 20:13, Moses included in his law that homosexual actions and behaviors were against God's will. In the 1830s, LDS founder,Joseph Smith,instituted the private practice on polygamy. The practice was defended by the church as a matter of religious freedom. In 1890, the church practice was terminated. Since the termination of polygamy, Mormons have solely believed in marriage between two people, and those two people being a man and a woman. The LDS community states that they still love homosexuals as sons and daughters of the Lord, but if they act upon their inclinations, then they are subject to discipline of the church.

Unitarian Universalism

SeveralUnitarian Universalist congregationshave undertaken a series of organizational, procedural, and practical steps to become acknowledged as a "Welcoming Congregation":a congregation which has taken specific steps to welcome and integrate gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) members. UU ministers performsame-sex unionsand nowsame-sex marriageswhere legal (and sometimes when not, as a form of civil protest). On June 29, 1984, the Unitarian Universalists became the first major church "to approve religious blessings on homosexual unions."

Unitarian Universalists have been in the forefront of the work to make same-sex marriages legal in their local states and provinces, as well as on the national level. Gay men, bisexuals, and lesbians are also regularlyordainedas ministers, and a number of gay, bisexual, and lesbian ministers have, themselves, now become legally married to their partners. In May 2004,Arlington Street Churchwas the site of the first state-sanctioned same-sex marriage in the United States. The official stance of the UUA is for the legalization of same-sex marriage— "Standing on the Side of Love." In 2004 UU Minister Rev. Debra Haffner ofThe Religious Institute on Sexual Morality, Justice, and HealingpublishedAn Open Letter on Religious Leaders on Marriage Equalityto affirm same-sex marriage from a multi-faith perspective. In December 2009, Washington, DC MayorAdrian Fentysigned the bill to legalize same-sex marriage for theDistrict of ColumbiainAll Souls Church, Unitarian (Washington, D.C.).

Unitarian Universalists for Polyamory Awarenessis a group within Unitarian Universalism whose vision is "for Unitarian Universalism to become the firstpoly-welcoming mainstream religious denomination. "

Islam

Main articles:Interfaith marriage in Islam,LGBT people in Islam,andMukhannathun

Further information:Islamic sexual jurisprudenceandLiberalism and progressivism within Islam

Same-sex sexual activity illegal

Not enforced or unclear

Penalty

Life in prison

Death penalty on books but not applied

Death penalty

Interfaith marriagesare recognized between Muslims and Non-Muslim "People of the Book"(usually enumerated asJews,Christians,andSabians).According to the traditional interpretation ofIslamic law(sharīʿa), a Muslim man is allowed to marry a Christian or Jewish woman but this ruling does not apply to women who belong toother Non-Muslim religious groups,whereas a Muslim woman is not allowed to marry a Non-Muslim man of any Non-Muslim religious group.In general, theQurantells Muslim men not to marry Non-Muslim women,and it tells Muslim women not marry non-Muslim men,but it makes an allowance for Muslim men to marry women of thePeople of the Book(usuallyJews,Christians,andSabians).No such allowances are made for women.Some Muslim scholars discourage all interfaith marriages, citing cultural differences between Muslims and Non-Muslims.

In some societies outside the traditionaldar al-islam,interfaith marriages between Muslims and Non-Muslims are not uncommon, including marriages that contradict the historic Sunni understanding ofijmāʿ(the consensus offuqāha) as to the bounds of legitimacy.The tradition ofreformist and progressive Islam,however, permits marriage between Muslim women and Non-Muslim men;Islamic scholars opining this view includeKhaleel Mohammed,Hassan Al-Turabi,among others.DespiteSunni Islamprohibiting Muslim women from marrying Non-Muslim men in interfaith marriages, interfaith marriages between Muslim women and Non-Muslim men take place at substantial rates, contravening the traditional Sunni understanding ofijmāʿ.The modern tradition ofreformist and progressive Islamhas also come to permit marriage between Muslim women and Non-Muslim men,with Islamic scholars opining this view includingKhaleel MohammedandHassan Al-Turabi,among others.In theUnited States,about 10% of Muslim women are today married to Non-Muslim men.

Istanbul LGBTQ Pride paradein 2013,Taksim Square,Istanbul,Turkey

Attitudes towardLGBTQ+ peopleand their experiences in theMuslim worldhave been influenced by its religious, legal, social, political, and cultural history.The religious stigma andsexual tabooassociated with homosexuality in Islamic societies can have profound effects for those Muslims who self-identify as LGBTQ+.Today, most LGBTQ-affirming Islamic organizations and individual congregations are primarily based in theWestern worldandSouth Asiancountries; they usually identify themselves with theliberal and progressive movements within Islam.

Homosexual acts areforbiddenin traditionalIslamic jurisprudenceand are liable to different punishments, includingflogging,stoning,and thedeath penalty,depending on the situation andlegal school.However, homosexual relationships were generally tolerated inpre-modern Islamic societies,and historical records suggest that these laws were invoked infrequently, mainly in cases ofrapeor other "exceptionally blatant infringement onpublic morals".Public attitudes toward homosexuality in the Muslim world underwent a marked negative change starting from the 19th century through theglobal spreadofIslamic fundamentalist movementssuch asSalafismandWahhabism,and the influence of the sexual notions and restrictive norms prevalent inEuropeat the time: a number of Muslim-majority countries have retained criminal penalties for homosexual acts enacted under Europeancolonialrule.In recent times, extremeprejudice,discrimination,andviolence against LGBT peoplepersists, bothsociallyand legally, in much of the Muslim world,exacerbated by increasinglysocially conservativeattitudes and the rise ofIslamist movementsin Muslim-majority countries.

Judaism

Main article:Judaism and sexuality

See also:Homosexuality and Judaism,Judaism and masturbation,Tzniut,Niddah,Yichud,Negiah,andAdultery § Judaism

Orthodox Jewishprotesters holding Anti-LGBTQ Protest signs during the Gay Pride parade inHaifa,Israel(2010)

In the perspective of traditionalJudaism,sex and reproduction are the holiest of acts one can do, the act through which one can imitateGod,and in order to preserve its sanctity there are many boundaries and guidelines. Within the boundaries, there are virtually no outright strictures, and it is in fact obligatory. It prohibits sexual relations outside of heterosexual marriage, maintains biblical strictures on relations within marriage including observance ofniddah,a prohibition on relations for a period including the menstrual period, andtzniut,requirements of modest dress and behavior. Traditional Judaism views the physical acts of adultery, incest, intentional waste of semen, the physical act ofmen having sex with men,and male masturbation as grave sins. Judaism permits relatively free divorce, withOrthodox JudaismandConservative Judaismrequiring areligious divorceceremony for a divorce to be religiously recognized. Worldwide movements in Judaism considered more liberal have rejected Jewish law as binding but rather inspirational and allegorical, so adapted perspectives more consistent with general contemporary Western culture.

Most of mainstream Judaism does not acceptpolyamory,although some people consider themselves Jewish and polyamorous.One prominent rabbi who does accept polyamory isSharon Kleinbaumwho was ordained inReconstructionist Judaismwhich considers biblical Jewish law as not considered binding, but is treated as a valuable cultural remnant that should be upheld unless there is reason for the contrary. She is the senior rabbi at Congregation Beit Simchat Torah in New York which works independently of any major American Jewish denomination; R Kleinbaum says that polyamory is a choice that does not preclude a Jewishly observant, socially conscious life.Some polyamorous Jews also point to biblical patriarchs having multiple wives and concubines as evidence that polyamorous relationships can be sacred in Judaism.There is an email list dedicated to polyamorous Jews, calledAhavaRaba,which roughly translates to "big love" in Hebrew.(Its name echoes theAhava rabbahprayer expressing thanks for God's "abundant love".)

Orthodox

Main article:Tzniut

There are several levels to the observance of physical and personal modesty (tzniut), according toOrthodox Judaism,as derived from various sources inhalakha.Observance of these rules varies from aspirational to mandatory to routine across the spectrum of Orthodox stricture and observance.

Orthodox Judaism also maintains a strong prohibition on interfaith sexual relations and marriage. Orthodox Judaism, alone of all the Jewish denominations, retains relatively mild traditional disabilities on divorce, including a Biblical prohibition on aKohen(priestly descendant ofAaron) marrying a divorcee or a woman who has engaged in certain types ofsexual misconduct.An Orthodoxbill of divorceis required for a divorce to be recognized.

Conservative

Conservative Judaism,consistent with its general view thathalakha(Jewish law) is a binding guide to Jewish life but subject to periodic revision by the Rabbinate, has lifted a number of strictures observed byOrthodox Judaism.In particular, in December 2006, Conservative Judaism'sCommittee on Jewish Law and Standardsadoptedresponsapresenting diametrically opposed views on the issue of homosexuality. It adopted an opinion restricting a prior prohibition on homosexual conduct to male-male anal sex only, which it declared to be the only Biblical prohibition, declaring all other prohibitions (e.g. male-male oral sex or lesbian sex) rabbinic, and lifting all rabbinic restrictions based on its interpretation of the Talmudic principle ofKevod HaBriyot( "human dignity" ). While declining to develop a form of religious gay marriage, it permitted blessing lesbian and gay unions and ordaining openly lesbian and gay rabbis who agree not to engage in male-male anal sex.It is also a traditionalist opinion, upholding all traditional prohibitions on homosexual activity, also adopted as a majority opinion,The approach permits individual rabbis, congregations, and rabbinical schools to set their own policy on homosexual conduct. It reflects a profound change from a prior blanket prohibition on male homosexual practices. It acknowledges a sharp divergence of views on sexual matters within Conservative Judaism, such that there is no single Conservative Jewish approach to matters of sexuality. Conservative Judaism currently straddles the divide between liberal and traditional opinion on sexual matters within contemporary American society, permitting both views.

Conservative Judaism has maintained on its books a variety of requirements and prohibitions, including a requirement that married women observe the family purity laws and a general prohibition on non-marital heterosexual conduct. The family purity laws require women to be recognized astumahorniddahduring theirmenstrual period.As a tumah, a woman is to wait 7 days for her menstrual cycle to end and then 7 "clean days" in order to enter themikvehand begin sexual relations.During this time, it is forbidden to have any type of contact with the niddah, thus anything she touches is not to be touched and no physical contact is permitted.On the same day as theCommittee on Jewish Law and Standardsreleased its homosexuality responsa, it released multiple opinions on the subject of niddah including a responsum lifting certain traditional restrictions on husband-wife contact during the niddah period while maintaining a prohibition on sexual relations. The permissive responsum on homosexuality used the Conservative movement's approach to niddah as an analogy for construing the Biblical prohibition against male homosexual conduct narrowly and lifting restrictions it deemed Rabbinic in nature. The responsum indicated it would be making a practical analogy between an approach in which male homosexual couples would be on their honor to refrain from certain acts and its approach to niddah:

We expect homosexual students to observe the rulings of this responsum in the same way that we expect heterosexual students to observe theCJLSrulings on niddah. We also expect that interview committees, administrators, faculty and fellow students will respect the privacy and dignity of gay and lesbian students in the same way that they respect the privacy and dignity of heterosexual students.

The responsum enjoined young people not to be "promiscuous" and to prepare themselves for "traditional marriage" if possible, while not explicitly lifting or re-enforcing any express strictures on non-marital heterosexual conduct.

Even before this responsum, strictures on pre-marital sex had been substantially ignored, even in official circles. For example, when theJewish Theological Seminary of Americaproposed enforcing a policy against non-marital cohabitation by rabbinical students in the 1990s, protests by cohabiting rabbinical students resulted in a complete rescission of the policy.

Conservative Judaism formallyprohibits interfaith marriageand its standards currently indicate it will expel a rabbi who performs an interfaith marriage. It maintains a variety of formal strictures including a prohibition on making birth announcements in synagogue bulletins for children on non-Jewish mothers and accepting non-Jews as synagogue members. However, interfaith marriage is relatively widespread among the Conservative laity, and the Conservative movement has recently adapted a policy of being more welcoming of interfaith couples in the hopes of interesting their children in Judaism.

Conservative Judaism, which was for much of the 20th century the largest Jewish denomination in the United States declined sharply in synagogue membership in the United States the 1990s, from 51% of synagogue memberships in 1990 to 33.1% in 2001, with most of the loss going to Orthodox Judaism and most of the rest to Reform. The fracturing in American society of opinion between increasingly liberal and increasingly traditionalist viewpoints on sexual and other issues, as well as the gap between official opinion and general lay practice vis-a-vis the more traditionalist and liberal denominations, may have contributed to the decline.

Reform, Liberal, Reconstructionist, and Humanistic

Further information:LGBT-affirming denominations in Judaism,LGBT clergy in Judaism,andSame-sex marriage and Judaism

A halakhic egalitarian PrideminyaninTel Avivon the second Shabbat ofHanukkah

Reform Judaism,Humanistic Judaism,andReconstructionist Judaismdo not observe or require traditional sexuality rules and have welcomed non-married and homosexual couples and endorsed homosexual commitment ceremonies and marriages.

Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism are more tolerant of interfaith partnerships and often explicitly welcome interfaith families at their synagogues and services. Reform and Liberal branches of Judaism do not currently perform religious (and therefore legally binding) marriage ceremonies for interfaith couples; however as of October 2020, Liberal Rabbis may bless an interfaith marriage under achuppahat their discretion, provided the couple intend to keep a Jewish household.Humanistic Judaism permits interfaith marriage. Reform, Reconstructionist, and Humanistic Judaism also do not require a religious divorce ceremony separate from a civil divorce.

It has been speculated that the more tolerant attitudes of Reform, Reconstructionist, and Humanistic Judaism towards both sexual diversity and interfaith marriage may have contributed to the rise in their popularity during the 1990s, from about 33% of affiliated households to 38%, passing Conservative Judaism as the largest Jewish denomination in the United States.

Dharmic religions

Buddhism

Main article:Buddhism and sexuality

See also:Buddhism and sexual orientation

The most common formulation ofBuddhist ethicsare thefive preceptsand theNoble Eightfold Path,which say that one should neither beattachedto nor crave sensual pleasure. These precepts take the form of voluntary, personal undertakings, not divine mandate or instruction.

Of the five precepts, the third vow is to refrain from sex with another's spouse, someone under age (namely, those protected by their parents or guardians), and those who have taken vows of religious celibacy.InChinese Buddhism,the third vow is interpreted as refraining from sex outside marriage.

Buddhist monks and nunsof most traditions are expected to refrain from all sexual activity and theBuddhais said to have admonished his followers to avoid unchastity "as if it were a pit of burning cinders."While laypersons may have sex within marriage, monastics are not to have any sexual conduct at all.

Hinduism

See also:History of sex in India,Hinduism and LGBT topics,andKama

Khajuraho Hindu temple complexis famous for erotic arts.

Erotic sculptures at the mainHindu templesofKhajuraho Group of Monuments

Religiously,Hindusbegin life at theBrahmacharyaor "student" stage, in which they are directed to chastely advance themselves educationally and spiritually to prepare themselves for a life of furthering theirdharma(societal, occupational, parental, etc. duties) andkarma(right earthly actions); only once they reach theGrihastyaor "householder" stage can they seekkama(physical pleasure) andartha(worldly achievement, material prosperity) through marriage and their vocations, respectively.

According to theDharmasastrasor the religious legal texts of Hinduism,marriage in Hinduismis an institution for reproduction and thus is naturally limited to heterosexual couples. Furthermore, sex outside of marriage is prohibited. TheManusmritilist eight types of marriage of which four are consensual and encouraged and four are non-consensual and discouraged. However, popular practices did not necessarily reflect religious teachings.

TheKama Sutra(Discourse on Kāma) by Vatsayana, widely believed to be just a manual for sexual practices, offers an insight into the sexualmores,ethicsand societal rules that were prevalent in ancient India. The erotic sculptures ofKhajurahoalso offer insight. Abhigyana Shakuntalam, a drama in Sanskrit byKālidāsa,cited as one of the best examples of shringara rasa (romance, one of the nine rasas or emotions), talks of the love story ofDushyantaandShakuntala.

Sikhism

A disciplinedSikhis expected to be in control of sexual desire at all times.Kaam,orexcessivelust, is one of thefive thieves,or vices, that interfere with one's spiritual journey.Normal and healthy amounts of sexuality and lust are not condemned nor consideredkaam.

East Asian religions

Taoism

InChinese mythology,Jiutian Xuannüis the goddess of war, sex, and longevity.She is closely related toSunü( Tố Nữ ), who is her divine sister.Both their names combined, asxuansu zhidao( huyền tố chi đạo ), signify theDaoist arts of the bedchamber.Most books bearing Jiutian Xuannü's name were about warfare, but there were a few books that were specifically about sex.TheXuannü Jing( Huyền Nữ kinh, "Mysterious Woman Classic" ) and theSunü Jing( Tố Nữ kinh, "Natural Woman Classic" ), both dating to theHan dynasty,were handbooks in dialogue form about sex.Texts from theXuannü Jinghave been partly incorporated into theSui dynastyedition of theSunü Jing.From the Han dynasty onwards, these handbooks would be familiar to the upper class.On the other side, during the Han dynasty,Wang Chonghad criticized the sexual arts as "not only harming the body but infringing upon the nature of man and woman."During theTang dynastyand earlier periods, Jiutian Xuannü was often associated with the sexual arts.TheXuannü Jingremained a familiar work among the literati during the Tang and Sui dynasties.

TheDongxuanzi Fangzhong Shu( động huyền bầu nhuỵ trung thuật, "Bedchamber Arts of the Master of the Grotto Mysteries" ), which was likely written by the 7th-century poetLiu Zongyuan,contains explicit descriptions of the sexual arts that was supposedly transmitted from Jiutian Xuannü.The sexual practices, that Jiutian Xuannü supposedly taught, were often compared to alchemy and physiological procedures for prolonging life.InGe Hong'sBaopu Zi,there's a passage in which Jiutian Xuannü tells Huangdi that sexual techniques are "like the intermingling of water and fire—it can kill or bring new life depending upon whether or not one uses the correct methods."

Tu'er Shen(Chinese:Thố Nhi Thần or thỏ thần), The Leveret Spirit is a ChineseShenistorTaoistdeity who manages love and sex between men. His name is often colloquially translated as "Rabbit God". Wei-Ming Temple in the Yonghe District ofNew Taipei CityinTaiwanis dedicated to Tu'er Shen.About 9000 pilgrims visit the temple each year to pray to find a suitable partner.The Wei-ming temple also performs love ceremony for gay couples.

Indigenous religions

African Diasporic religions

Main article:Haitian Vodou and sexual orientation

WithinCandomblé,asyncreticreligion primarily found in Brazil, there is widespread (though not universal) support for gay rights, many members are LGBT, and have performed gay marriages.Practitioners ofSantería,primarily found in Cuba, generally (though not universally) welcome LGBT members and include them in religious or ritual activities.Also a Brazilian syncretic religion,Umbandahouses generally support LGBT rights and have performed gay marriages.Homosexuality is religiously acceptable inHaitian Vodou.The lwa or loa (spirits)Erzulie DantorandErzulie Fredaare often associated with and viewed as protectors of queer people.The laoGhede Nibois sometimes depicted as an effeminate drag queen and inspires those he inhabits to lascivious sexuality of all kinds.

Ancient Mesopotamian religion

Main article:Ancient Mesopotamian religion

Individuals who went against the traditionalgender binarywere heavily involved in the cult ofInanna,an ancient Mesopotamian goddess.During Sumerian times, a set of priests known asgalaworked in Inanna's temples, where they performed elegies and lamentations.Men who becamegalasometimes adopted female names and their songs were composed in the Sumerianeme-saldialect, which, in literary texts, is normally reserved for the speech of female characters. Some Sumerian proverbs seem to suggest thatgalahad a reputation for engaging inanal sexwith men.During the Akkadian Period,kurgarrūandassinnuwere servants of Ishtar whodressed in female clothingand performed war dances in Ishtar's temples.Several Akkadianproverbsseem to suggest that they may have also had homosexual proclivities.Gwendolyn Leick, an anthropologist known for her writings on Mesopotamia, has compared these individuals to the contemporary Indianhijra.In one Akkadian hymn, Ishtar is described as transforming men into women.Some modern pagans include Inanna in their worship.

Pre-colonial religions of the Americas

Main articles:Alaska Native religion,Mesoamerican religion,Native American religion,andInuit religion

Further information:Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States

Drawing byGeorge Catlin(1796–1872) while on theGreat Plainsamong theSac and Fox Nation.Depicting a group of male warriors dancing around a male-bodied person in a woman's dress, non-Native artist George Catlin titled the paintingDance to the Berdache.

Among theIndigenous peoples of the Americasprior to theEuropean colonization,many Nations had respected ceremonial, religious, and social roles for homosexual, bisexual, and gender-nonconforming individuals in their communities and in many contemporaryNative AmericanandFirst Nationscommunities, these roles still exist.Homosexual and gender-variant individuals were also common among other pre-conquestcivilizations inLatin America,such as theAztecs,Mayans,Quechuas,Moches,Zapotecs,and theTupinambáof Brazil and were accepted in their various religions.

New religious movements

Since the beginning of thesexual liberation movementin the Western world, which coincided withsecond-wave feminismand thewomen's liberation movementinitiated in the early 1960s,new religious movements and alternative spiritualities such asModern Paganismand theNew Agebegan to grow and spread across the globe alongside their intersection with the sexual liberation movement and thecounterculture of the 1960s,and exhibited characteristic features, such as the embrace ofalternative lifestyles,unconventional dress, rejection ofAbrahamic religionsand theirconservative social mores,use ofcannabisand otherrecreational drugs,relaxed attitude,sarcastic humbleor self-imposed poverty, andlaissez-fairesexual behavior.The sexual liberation movement was aided by feminist ideologues in their mutual struggle to challenge traditional ideas regardingfemale sexuality,male sexuality,andqueersexuality.Elimination of undue favorable bias towards men and objectification of women, as well as support for women's right to choose their sexual partners free of outside interference or societal judgment, were three of the main goals associated with sexual liberation from the feminist perspective.

Modern Paganism

MostNeopagan religionshave the theme of fertility (both physical and creative/spiritual) as central to their practices, and as such encourage what they view as a healthy sex life, consensual sex between adults, regardless of gender.

Heathenry,amodern Germanic Pagan movement,includes several pro-LGBT groups. Some groups legitimize openness toward LGBT practitioners by reference to the gender-bending actions ofThorandOdininNorse mythology.There are, for instance, homosexual andtransgendermembers ofThe Troth,a prominent U.S. Heathen organisation.Many Heathen groups in Northern Europe performsame-sex marriages,and a group of self-described "Homo-Heathens" marched in the 2008Stockholm Pridecarrying a statue of the Norse godFreyr.Research found a greater proportion of LGBT practitioners within Heathenry (21%) than wider society, although noted that the percentage was lower than in other forms of modern Paganism.

Wicca,like other religions, has adherents with a broad spectrum of views, ranging from conservative to liberal. It is a largely nondogmatic religion and has no prohibitions against sexual intercourse outside of marriage or relationships between members of the same sex. The religion's ethics are largely summed up by theWiccan Rede:"An it harm none, do as thou wilt", which is interpreted by many as allowing and endorsing responsible sexual relationships of all varieties. Specifically in the Wiccan tradition of modern witchcraft, one of the widely accepted pieces ofCraftliturgy, theCharge of the Goddessinstructs that "...all acts of love and pleasure are [the Goddess'] rituals",giving validity to all forms of sexual activity for Wiccan practitioners.

In theGardnerianandAlexandrianforms of Wicca, the "Great Rite"is a sex ritual much like thehieros gamos,performed by a priest and priestess who are believed to embody the Wiccan God and Goddess. The Great Rite is almost always performed figuratively using the athame and chalice as symbols of the penis and vagina. The literal form of the ritual is always performed by consenting adults, by a couple who are already lovers and in private. The Great Rite is not seen as an opportunity for casual sex.

Raëlism

Main article:Raëlism

Further information:Raëlian beliefs and practices

Raëlian participants attending theKorea Queer Culture Festival(2014)

Raëlism,an internationalnew religious movementandUFO religionwhich was founded in France in 1974,promotes apositive outlook towards human sexuality,including homosexuality.Its founderRaëlrecognised same-sex marriage, and a Raëlian press release stated that sexual orientation is genetic and it also likeneddiscrimination against gay peopletoracism.Some Raëlian leaders have performed licensed same-sex marriages.

Santa Muerte

The cult ofSanta Muerteis anew religious movementcentered on the worship of Santa Muerte, acult image,female deity,andfolk saintwhich is popularly revered inMexicanNeopaganismandfolk Catholicism.Apersonification of death,she is associated with healing, protection, and safe delivery to theafterlifeby her devotees.Santa Muerte is also revered and seen as a saint and protector of thelesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) communities in Mexico,since LGBTQ+ people are considered and treated as outcasts by theCatholic Church,evangelical churches,and Mexican society at large.Many LGBTQ+ people ask her for protection from violence, hatred, disease, and to help them in their search for love. Her intercession is commonly invoked insame-sex marriage ceremoniesperformed in Mexico.TheIglesia Católica Tradicional México-Estados Unidos,also known as the Church of Santa Muerte,recognizesgay marriage and performs religious wedding ceremonies for homosexual couples.According to R. Andrew Chesnut,PhDinLatin American historyandprofessorofReligious studies,the cult of Santa Muerte is the single fastest-growing new religious movement in the Americas.

Satanism

LaVeyan Satanismis critical of Abrahamic sexualmores,considering them narrow, restrictive and hypocritical. Sex is viewed as an indulgence, but one that should only be freely entered into with consent.The Eleven Satanic Rules of the Earthonly give two instructions regarding sex, namely "Do not make sexual advances unless you are given the mating signal" and "Do not harm little children", although the latter is much broader and encompasses physical and other abuse. This has always been consistent part ofChurch of Satanpolicy since its inception in 1966 asPeter H. Gilmorewrote in an essay supportingsame sex marriage:

Finally, since certain people try to suggest that our attitude on sexuality is "anything goes" despite our stated base principle of "responsibility to the responsible," we must reiterate another fundamental dictate: The Church of Satan's philosophy strictly forbids sexual activity with children as well as with non-human animals.

Satanists are pluralists, accepting gays, lesbians, bisexuals,BDSM,polyamorists,transgenderpeople, andasexuals.In that essay, he also stated:

The Church of Satan is the first church to fully accept members regardless of sexual orientation and so we champion weddings/civil unions between adult partners whether they be of opposite or the same sex. So long as love is present and the partners wish to commit to a relationship, we support their desire for a legally recognized partnership, and the rights and privileges which come from such a union.

Allegations have been made by antifascist organisations, several British politicians and the media that theOrder of Nine Anglescondones and encourages sexual abuse, and this has been given as one of the reasons why the O9A should be proscribed by the British government. Many O9A members openly view rape as an effective way to undermine society by transgressing against its norms. White Star Acception commits rapes by their own admission and O9A texts such as "The Dreccian Way", "Iron Gates", "Bluebird" and "The Rape Anthology" recommend and praise rape and pedophilia, even suggesting rape is necessary for "ascension of the Ubermensch". To advance in rank, ONA member must perform assaults, lynching and sexual assault being the most recommended.Material promoting pedophilia has also appeared in ONA's in house magazineFenrir.According toBBC News,"the authorities are concerned by the number of paedophiles associated with the ONA".

Western esotericism and occultism

Main article:Sex magic

Aleister Crowleyin ceremonial garb, photographed in 1912

Sex magic is a term for various types ofsexual activityused inmagical,ritualistic,or otherwisereligiousandspiritualpursuits found withinWestern esotericismwhich is a broad spectrum ofspiritualtraditions found inWestern society,or refers to the collection of themystical,esoteric knowledgeof theWestern world.One practice of sex magic is using the energy ofsexual arousalor orgasm with visualization of a desired result. A premise of sex magic is the concept that sexual energy is a potent force that can be harnessed totranscendone's normally perceivedreality.The earliest known practical teachings of sex magic in the Western world come from 19th-century American occultistPaschal Beverly Randolph,under the heading ofThe Mysteries of Eulis.In the latter part of the 19th century, sexual reformerIda Craddockpublished several works dealing with sacred sexuality, most notablyHeavenly BridegroomsandPsychic Wedlock.Aleister CrowleyreviewedHeavenly Bridegroomsin the pages of his journalThe Equinox,stating:

It was one of the most remarkable human documents ever produced, and it should certainly find a regular publisher in book form. The authoress of the MS. claims that she was the wife of an angel. She expounds at the greatest length the philosophy connected with this thesis. Her learning is enormous. [...]

This book is of incalculable value to every student of occult matters. No Magick library is complete without it.

Aleister Crowley became involved withTheodor ReussandOrdo Templi Orientisfollowing the publication ofThe Book of Liesbetween 1912 and 1913.According to Crowley's account, Reuss approached him and accused him of having revealed the innermost (sexual) secret of O.T.O. in one of the cryptic chapters of this book. When it became clear to Reuss that Crowley had done so unintentionally, he initiated Crowley into the IX° (ninth degree) of O.T.O. and appointed him "Sovereign Grand Master General ofIreland,Iona and all the Britains. "

While the O.T.O. included, from its inception, the teaching of sexmagickin the highest degrees of the Order, when Crowley became head of the Order, he expanded on these teachings and associated them with different degrees as follows:

• VIII°:masturbatoryor auto-sexual magical techniques were taught, referred as theLesser Work of Sol
• IX°:heterosexualmagical techniques were taught
• XI°:anal intercoursemagical techniques were taught.

Hugh Urban,professor of comparative religion atOhio State University,noted Crowley's emphasis on sex as "the supreme magical power".According to Crowley:

The Book of the Lawsolves the sexual problem completely. Each individual has an absolute right to satisfy his sexual instinct as is physiologically proper for him. The one injunction is to treat all such acts as sacraments. One should not eat as the brutes, but in order to enable one to do one's will. The same applies to sex. We must use every faculty to further the one object of our existence.

Zoroastrianism

Further information:Homosexuality and religion § Zoroastrianism,Incest § Zoroastrian,andReligious views on masturbation § Zoroastrianism

See also

• Christianity and homosexuality
• Christianity and sexual orientation
• Christian views on birth control
• Erotic plasticity
• Forbidden relationships in Judaism
• Homosexuality and Judaism
• Incest#Religious views
• Jewish views on marriage
• LGBT-affirming denominations in Judaism
• Martinus
• Nazar ila'l-murd
• Pederasty in ancient Greece
• Polyamory#Acceptance by religions
• Religious censorship
• Religious trauma syndrome
• Sexual abstinence
• Side A, Side B, Side X, Side Y (theological views)
• Sodomy law
• Song of Songs
• Unification Church and sex
• Virgin goddess

References

Sources

• Brundage, James A. (1987).Law, Sex, and Christian Society in Medieval Europe.University of Chicago Press.ISBN978-0-226-07784-0.
• Habib, Samar (1997).Islam and Homosexuality, vol. 2.ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-0-313-37904-8.
• Jivraj, Suhraiya; de Jong, Anisa (2001).Muslim Moral Instruction on Homosexuality(PDF).Yoesuf Foundation Conference on Islam in the West and Homosexuality – Strategies for Action. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2015-09-24.Retrieved2018-12-17.
• Miller, Patricia Cox (2005).Women in Early Christianity.Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press.
• Noonan, John Thomas (1965).Contraception: a History of its Treatment by the Catholic Theologians And Canonists.Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
• Pike, Sarah M.(2004)."Part II –" All Acts of Love and Pleasure Are My Rituals ": Sex, Gender, and the Sacred".New Age and Neopagan Religions in America.Columbia Contemporary American Religion Series.New York:Columbia University Press.pp. 115–144.ISBN9780231508384.JSTOR10.7312/pike12402.10.LCCN2003061844.
• Wafer, Jim (1997)."Mohammad and male homosexuality".In Stephen O. Murray & Will Roscoe (ed.).Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History and Literature.New York University Press. pp. 87–96.ISBN978-0-8147-7468-7.

Further reading

General on sex and religion.

• Eisler, Riane,Sacred Pleasure: Sex, Myth, and the Politics of the Body: New Paths to Power and Love,HarperOne 1996.
• Endsjø, Dag Øistein,Sex and Religion: Teachings and Taboos in the History of World Faiths,Reaktion Books 2011. Also published in Arabic, Bulgarian, Chinese, Italian, Macedonian, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Serbian, Swedish, and Ukrainian.
• Helminiak, Daniel A.,Sex and the Sacred - Gay Identity and Spiritual Growth,Routledge 2006.
• Kolodny, Debra(editor),Blessed Bi Spirit: Bisexual People of Faith,Continuum, 2000.ISBN0826412319,ISBN978-0826412317

Buddhism

• Faure, Bernard,The Red Thread: Buddhist Approaches to Sexuality.ISBN0-691-05998-5.
• Sudo, Philip T.,Zen Sex: The Way of Making Love.ISBN0-06-075799-X.

Christianity

• Boswell, John,Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century,University Of Chicago Press, 1st ed. 1980ISBN0-226-06710-6,paperback 2005ISBN0-226-06711-4
• De La Torre, Miguel A.,A Lily Among the Thorns: Imagining a New Christian SexualitymISBN978-0-7879-8146-4.
• Kern, Jan,Seduced By Sex: Saved By Love.ISBN978-0-7847-2158-2.
• Köstenberger, Andreas J.,God, Marriage, and Family: Rebuilding the Biblical Foundation.ISBN978-1-58134-580-3.
• Kuefler, Mathew (editor),The Boswell Thesis: Essays on Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality,University Of Chicago Press, Nov. 2005ISBN0-226-45741-9
• Pagels, Elaine,Adam, Eve, and the Serpent: Sex and Politics in Early Christianity,Vintage 1988.

Hinduism

• Smith, David,The Hindu Erotic: Exploring Hinduism and Sexuality,I.B. Tauris 2015.
• Vanita, Ruth and Saleem Kidwai,Same-Sex Love In India: Readings from Literature and History,Palgrave, 2001.

Islam

• Dialmy, Abdessamad (2010).Which Sex Education for Young Muslims?.World Congress of Muslim Philanthropists. Archived fromthe originalon 2016-03-03.Retrieved2019-02-01.
• El Feki, Shereen,Sex and the Citadel - Intimate Life in a Changing Arab World,Vintage 2014.
• Jahangir, Junaid bin (2010)."Implied Cases for Muslim Same-Sex Unions".In Samar Habib (ed.).Islam and homosexuality, Volume 2.ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-0-313-37904-8.
• Kugle, Scott Siraj al-Haqq,Homosexuality in Islam: Critical Reflection on Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Muslims,SD Books 2010.
• Schmitt, Arno; Sofer, Jehoeda (1992).Sexuality and Eroticism among Males in Muslim Societies.Haworth Press.ISBN978-1-56024-047-1.
• Schmitt, Arno (2001–2002).Liwat im Fiqh: Männliche Homosexualität?.Vol. IV. Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies. Archived fromthe originalon 2011-09-06.

Judaism

• Alpert, Rebecca,Like Bread on the Seder Plate: Jewish Lesbians and the Transformation of Tradition,Columbia University Press, 1998.ISBN0231096615,ISBN978-0231096614
• Boteach, Shmuley,Kosher Sex: A Recipe for Passion and Intimacy.ISBN0-385-49466-1.
• Gold, MichaelDoes God Belong in the Bedroom?ISBN0-8276-0421-1.
• Brown, Benjamin (December 2013). "Kedushah: The Sexual Abstinence of Married Men in Gur, Slonim, and Toledot Aharon".Jewish History.27(2–4): 475–522.doi:10.1007/s10835-013-9182-x.S2CID145210162.

Critical perspectives

• Gravatt, Sandra L (2008).An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible: A Thematic Approach.Westminster John Knox Press.ISBN978-0-664-23030-2.
• Savramis, Demosthenes,The Satanizing of Woman: Religion Versus Sexuality.ISBN0-385-04485-2.

Other

• Kebacqz, Karen, and Ronald G. Barton,Sex in the Parish,First ed., Westminster/John Knox Press, 1991.ISBN0-664-25087-4
• Tolle, Eckhart,The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment,New World Library, 1st ed. 1999, paperback 2004ISBN1-57731-480-8
• Ecker, Ronald L (1995).And Adam Knew Eve: A Dictionary of Sex in the Bible.Hodge & Braddock.ISBN978-0-9636512-4-2.
• Kosman, Admiel,Homosexuality - Between Early Judaism and Early Christianity (Lecture at Winchester University, UK)Prof. Admiel Kosman 20 March 2014Archived28 May 2020 at theWayback Machine