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Revival Process

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Turks in Bulgariaprotest for the return of their original names.

The "Revival Process"or the"Process of Rebirth"(Bulgarian:Възродителен процес,romanized:Vazroditelen protses) refers to a policy offorced assimilationpracticed by thesocialist Bulgarian governmentin the 1980s (1984-1989). It was the culmination of a series of repressive assimilationist campaigns directed at the country'sMuslim minority.The "Revival Process" was in turn followed by theforced expulsion of over 300,000 Muslims in 1989.

Terminology[edit]

The "Revival Process"[edit]

Like with the "Big Excursion",the name" Revival Process ", under which this campaign offorced assimilationis most well known, iseuphemisticand ambiguous. It likewise originated from the statements and official correspondence of thesocialist Bulgarian governmentwhile it carried out the policy.

Bulgarian Muslims and Bulgarian Turks[edit]

Bulgarian Turksconstitute a substantial portion of Bulgaria's Muslim population. WhileMuslimsof all ethnicities (Turks,Pomaks,Muslim Roma,AlbaniansandTatarsamong others) were affected by the "Revival Process", manyMuslim Bulgariannationals were referred to as "Turks" by the Bulgarian government whetherethnically Turkishor not and vica versa. Further complicating the matter, some Bulgarian Muslims whose native language was notTurkishthemselves identified as ethnically "Turkish", or at least did not strongly contest the label. Thus, identifying the precise ethnic background of individuals and the victims of the "Revival Process" by extension can be difficult.

Forced Assimilation[edit]

Background[edit]

According to the 1975Bulgarian census,the last taken before the start of the "Revival Process" which recorded ethnicity, "Turks" made up around 8.4% of the Bulgarian population of 8.7 Million. This was down from the final census taken before the start of the Communist era in 1946 where "Turks" comprised 9.6% of the population. The Muslim population was concentrated primarily in the country's northeast and southeast (particularlyKardzhali Province).[1]

ThePeople's Republic of Bulgariaofficially practicedState Atheism,in line withMarxist-Leninistdoctrine, and religious expression was tightly controlled. However, the state viewed domestic Muslims, whether practicing or not, as either the Bulgarian victims of Ottoman religious and cultural assimilation - wayward Bulgarians - or Turkish interlopers. Though the regime had long encouraged assimilationism to some degree, as theEastern Blocwavered in the 1980s, the Zhivkov regime leaned more heavily into Bulgarianethno-nationalismto prop itself up and stepped up repression of theMuslimpopulation in particular.

Initial Campaigns[edit]

The policy of theBulgarian Communist Partytowards ethnic and religious minorities evolved during the forty year course of one-party rule. The draconian policies that characterized the "Revival Process" were not the first such efforts on the part of theBulgarian People's Republic.

While Bulgaria had a large Turkish minority, until Zhivkov's removal from power, the Bulgarian regime denied the existence of any native Muslims of non-Bulgarian origin and insisted that such Muslim populations were descended from Bulgarians who had beenforcibly convertedto Islam under Ottoman Rule.[2]In line with this view, education policy was also gradually made more assimilationist. In 1962,Pomakswere banned from attending Turkish-language schools, and in 1972, Turkish-language schools were banned altogether.[3]

Following on from the ban on the Turkish language in schools, the government forced manySlavophone Muslimsto Bulgarianize their names in the early 1970s. By 1974, 150,000 "Pomaks" and 200,000 "Turks" had been forced to Bulgarianize their names.[4][5][6]

In 1978, the regime attempted to phase out traditional and religiousholidaysand observances in favor of approved socialist observances and rites. Officials were sent toIslamic funeralsto ensure that the properSocialistrites were carried out andprayerssaid in theBulgarian language.[7]

Just before the start of the "Revival Process" proper, the regime initiated a new round of limited forcedBulgarianization.Between 1981 and 1983, around 100,000 people, mainlyMuslim Romawere forcibly Bulgarianized. The measure was extended to a number of Crimean Tatars andAlians(a Shia group, also referred to as Alevi or Kizilbash)[8]mere months before the "Revival Process" began in earnest in 1984.[9]

Start of the "Revival Process"[edit]

While many Muslims had thus already been forced toBulgarianizetheir names, in 1984 the regime in Sofia decided to take the name-changing process to its conclusion. All ethnic Turks were toassimilateby changing theirTurkishnames.[10]Turks were made to choose from a pre-approved list of "'real'" Bulgarian names in lieu of their original "Islamo-Arabic" names.[11]Initially, only Turks living or born in theRhodopesregion in the country's southeast were required to change their names, but the requirement was ordered expanded to "all districts where there is such [a Turkish] population" in December 1984,[12]which was carried out a month later in January 1985.[13]By March 1985 the Bulgarian Government announced that "Bulgarisation"had been completed, and the Bulgarian Turks were provided with several newly issued documents for identification.[10]

The creation of an ideologically coherent list of approved "Bulgarian" names proved to be a challenge for the authorities. While many had been made to change their names previously, the regime sought to develop a comprehensive "'Classifier of Bulgarian Names'" only in 1984.[14]In the face of difficulties regarding the acceptability of foreign names (given names and surnames of Turkish, Arabic, Armenian, or some other non-Bulgarian origin) and the association between both foreign and "Bulgarian" and religion, the decision was eventually made to draft a list of 5,000 purely "Bulgarian" names, including those with a relationship to theOrthodox Christiancalendar.[15]Acceptable "Bulgarian" names were not just those of Slavic or Christian origin however, non-Islamic foreign names were also sometimes deemed acceptable.[citation needed]While this list was not completed prior to the start of the "Revival Process", some name indexes were available by that time.[12]

The methods employed by the state to coerce Turkish villages to agree to "Bulgarisation"were particularly violent. According to oneeyewitnessaccount by an ethnic Bulgarian: "The [Turkish] village was surrounded bymilitiaand/or special internal troops or regular army trucks or evenlight tanks.The village thus isolated, the mayor, the Communist Party secretary, and a few officials were then summoned and asked to sign a declaration that the village(rs) be given Bulgarian names... They were handed lists of Bulgarian names and then usually allowed twenty-four hours to consider. Most of these men agreed to cooperate and were thus held up as models for the rest of the village... Those who refused to comply, however, were taken by the militia from their homes... Eventually they signed. Those who still refused were held in a cellar for several days,abused, threatened, and beaten.If they still persisted, then imprisonment ensued. "[16]

Beyond theBulgarianizationof the names of living Muslims, Bulgarian authorities began to enforce other assimilation measures during the "Revival Process". During that time, Muslims were not allowed tobury their deadin Islamic cemeteries and weremade to defacethe Islamic orArabic inscriptionsand symbols on their ancestors graves. Store and restaurant owners were also prohibited from serving women intraditional Islamic dress.[17]The pre-existing ban on Islamiccircumcisionwas strictly enforced, and Muslim parents were required to sign documents promising not to circumcise their child. Officials regularly inspected Muslim boys to ensure they remained uncircumsized, and if a couple were found to have violated the ban, both the parents and the individual who had performed the circumcision faced punishment.[17]

Reaction and Resistance[edit]

Similar to the system of government-controlled religious organizations which exists in thePeople's Republic of Chinatoday, Bulgaria tightly regulated the practice of Islam in the country. ThePeople's Republic of Bulgariaformally employed a loyal Chief (Grand)Muftialong with regional Muftis throughout its reign.[17]Unsurprisingly, the state-employed Chief Mufti expressed his support for the "Revival Process", declaring that "...There have been no cases of preventing or in any way restricting Muslims from performing religious rites and services."[17]

Resistance to the "Revival Process" among the Turkish population itself, however, was strong. For example, in spite of regulations, many Muslims continued to secretly practice their faith and instruct their children in theTurkish languageandIslamic religion.[18]Once the necessary structures had been established, organized opposition began in earnest and opposition became increasingly visible. Turks and Muslims organized large-scale protests demanding the restoration of their rights and original names.

Rather than fight, however, many Turks initially attempted to escape the renaming process.[19]While the international borders of thePeople's Republic of Bulgariawere generally closed, Turks sought refuge within the country. Many fled into the forests and other inaccessible areas to hide from the state while others attempted to flee for the big cities (where the re-naming process was slower and more cumbersome).[19]Regardless, such escape attempts generally failed.[20]

Muslims who refused to assimilate faced imprisonment, expulsion, or internment in the reactivatedBelene labor camp,situated on an island in theDanuberiver.[21][22]Some who were sent to Belene died. While the number of civilian casualties is not definitively known, according to Turkish sources, anywhere from 800 to 2,500 died between November 1984 and February 1985.[23]Other observers, meanwhile, estimate the number of casualties at more than 1,000, though that number is likely to rise considerably when including the number of people who died of neglect orsuicidein Belene.[23]

In spite of the high number of fatalities among the Muslim community, organizedarmed resistanceto the "Revival Process" never arose.[24]Explanations for why resistance remainednon-violentare varied (in contrast to contemporaneous armed movements in places likeNorthern Ireland). Rumen Avramov, who was an economic advisor to Bulgaria's first non-communist president,Zhelyu Zhelev,claims that the extreme level of repression carried out by thePeople's Republic of Bulgariaprevented the development of armed opposition.[24]

Over 600 unorganized acts of "terror"were officially recorded bySofiaduring the 1980s, with the regime blaming Turks and Muslims for the acts, as well as their opposition groups.[24]Of those alleged 600 attacks, the vast majority cannot be explained conclusively.[24]Regardless, at least some of the attacks did occur. For instance, 7 people lost their lives occurred in the village ofBunovo.[note 1][25][1]

It is possible that some of the attacks were carried out or entirely fabricated by the Bulgarian regime in order to drum up support from the non-Muslim population. For example, upon the opening of secret police archives after the fall of the Communist regime, it was discovered that the perpetrators of two high-profile attacks allegedly committed by Turks in 1984, one at the Varna airport and another at the Plovidv rail station, were agents of the secret police.[26]

As a result of Muslim resistance toBulgarianizationand the "Revival Process", the government concluded that a subset of the Muslim population was intractable and could not be assimilated. Theemigrationof this subset was thus to be encouraged actively.[10]

1989 ethnic cleansing[edit]

Main article:Big Excursion

In 1989, the "Revival Process" reached its apogee. In an event euphemistically referred to as the "Big Excursion", over 300,000 leftCommunist BulgariaforTurkeybetween 30 May 1989 and 22 August 1989 (Bulgarian:Голямата екскурзия,romanized:Goliamata Ekskurziya.While the government of theBulgariamaintained that the migration of Muslims to Turkey was voluntary, many Bulgarian Turks had been coerced into leaving the country.[27]

Aftermath[edit]

Domestic[edit]

On 10 November 1989,Todor Zhivkovwas forced to resign,[10]andthe new Bulgarian governmentrestored the right of Bulgarian citizens to have Turkish names.[28]Not all who had been forced to change their names, however, restored their original names. Today, many Bulgarians of legacy (non-immigrant background) Muslim origin born during or after the "Revival Process" bear Bulgarian names, and as part of thecollective traumafrom the event, some are left to wonder what their name would have otherwise been.[29]

On 11 January 2012, theBulgarian Parliamentofficially condemned the "Revival Process" and recognized theevents of 1989as ethnic cleansing. While some Bulgarian mainstream parties have been rebuked for their continued disregard for the events of 1989,[30]the "Revival Process" is widely condemned.

In November 2002, theBulgarian Orthodox Churchdeclaredallvictims, including non-Christian victims, of the Bulgarian communist regime to bemartyrs.[31]

International[edit]

At a 2000 speech atDuquesne UniversityinPittsburgh, Pennsylvania,for example, keynote speaker and head of theNational Security AgencyMichael V. Hayden, made only non-specific reference to the "Revival Process" that he observed while stationed inSofiaduring theCold Warbecause the audience would not have understood the "facts and context necessary to follow his talk."[32]This illustrates the limited remembrance of the "Revival Process" abroad.

Even in Turkey, memory of the "Revival Process" is limited and testimony by victims is limited.[33]

Throughout the "Revival Process", many sought refuge abroad in countries other than Turkey, especially inAustria,Germany,andSweden.[34]Many also found refuge inAustralia,[34]Canada,England,and theUnited States.[35]

Responsibility[edit]

One 2012 study found that Bulgarians generally blame the politicians of the time for the "Revival Process".[36]When asked who bore the blame for the campaign, respondents blamed theBulgarian Communist Party,Todor Zhivkov,and the Secret Police. Some respondent even blamed the Soviet Union andLeonid Brezhnev(who died in 1982). The same study also found that victims do not generally blame ethnic-Bulgarians and are inclined to forgive them, with much blame instead heaped on fellow-Muslim "traitors" who collaborated with the regime.[37]

In Popular Culture[edit]

  • Naim Süleymanoğlu(Bulgarian:Наим Сюлейманоглу) was an ethnically-TurkishOlympic weightlifterborn in Bulgaria in 1967 as Naim Suleimanov (Bulgarian:Наим Сюлейманов). He was forced by the "Revival Process" to officially Bulgarianize his name and became known as "Naum Shalamanov" (Bulgarian:Наум Шаламанов) in 1985. The following year (1986), he defected toTurkeyand began to compete for his new country in international weightlifting competitions. Following his defection he changed his name once again, this time to the name under which he is known internationally: the unabashedly Turkish "Naim Süleymanoğlu". Following his defection, he won thegold medalin hisweight classin three consecutiveSummer Olympic Games.
  • Gülhan Şen(Bulgarian:Гюлхан Шен) was born in Bulgaria in 1978. In 1985, she was forced to Bulgarianize her name to "Galina Hristova Mihailova" (Bulgarian:Галина Христова Михайлова). In 1989 she was compelled to move to Turkey.

See also[edit]

Groups[edit]

People[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Some sources instead give the number of deceased victims as 6

References[edit]

  1. ^Eminov 1997a,pp. 213.
  2. ^Eminov 1997a,pp. 229.
  3. ^Kamusella 2019,pp. 7.
  4. ^Eminov 2007,p. 7.
  5. ^Mayuhtar-May 2014,p. 100, 133-136.
  6. ^Şimşir 1988,p. 274.
  7. ^Eminov 1997a,p. 227.
  8. ^Eminov 1997a,p. 232.
  9. ^Şimşir 1988,p. 275.
  10. ^abcdVaksberg 2014.
  11. ^Pozharliev 2012,pp. 46.
  12. ^abPozharliev 2012,pp. 41.
  13. ^Eminov 1997b,pp. 85–87.
  14. ^Pozharliev 2012,pp. 38.
  15. ^Pozharliev 2012,pp. 39–40.
  16. ^Eminov 1997b,pp. 87.
  17. ^abcdEminov 1997a,pp. 228.
  18. ^Pozharliev 2012,pp. 59–61.
  19. ^abPozharliev 2012,pp. 59.
  20. ^Pozharliev 2012,pp. 58.
  21. ^Büchsenschütz 2000.
  22. ^Mediapool.bg 2009.
  23. ^abKamusella 2019,pp. 34.
  24. ^abcdKamusella 2019,pp. 35.
  25. ^Kamusella 2019,pp. 36.
  26. ^Pozharliev 2012,pp. 42.
  27. ^Martino.
  28. ^Refugees 2004.
  29. ^Trupia 2022,p. 56.
  30. ^Kamusella 2020.
  31. ^Trupia 2022,pp. 49.
  32. ^Kamusella 2019,pp. 12.
  33. ^Pozharliev 2012,pp. 3.
  34. ^abMaeva 2008,pp. 227–229.
  35. ^Hillgren 2009:De flesta av flyktingarna tvingades återvända men få av dem finns i dag kvar i Bulgarien. De har istället flytt på nytt och sökt ett liv i västländer som Kanada, England, USA, Turkiet eller Tyskland.
  36. ^Pozharliev 2012,pp. 66.
  37. ^Pozharliev 2012,pp. 67.

Bibliography[edit]

  • Büchsenschütz, Ulrich (2000).The Policies of the Bulgarian Communist Party towards Jews, Roma, Pomaks and Turks (1944-89)(PDF)(in Bulgarian). International Center for Minority Studies and Intercultural Relations. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2007-09-26.
  • Eminov, Ali (2007). "Social Construction of Identity: Pomaks in Bulgaria".Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe.Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe.
  • Eminov, Ali (1990). "There Are No Turks in Bulgaria: Rewriting History by Administrative Fiat". In Karpat, Kemal (ed.).The Turks of Bulgaria: The History, Culture and Political Fate of a Minority.Istanbul: The Isis Press.
  • Kamusella, Tomasz (2019).Ethnic Cleansing During the Cold War: The Forgotten 1989 Expulsion of Turks from Communist Bulgaria.Routledge.
  • Maeva, Mila (2008). "Modern Migration Waves of Bulgarian Turks". In Marushiakova, Elena (ed.).Dynamics of National Identity and Transnational Identities in the Process of European Integration.Cambridge Scholars Publishing.ISBN9781847184719.
  • Mayuhtar-May, Fatme (2014).Identity, Nationalism, and Cultural Heritage under Siege: Five Narratives of Pomak Heritage: From Forced Renaming to Weddings.Balkan Studies Library.
  • Pozharliev, Lyubomir (2012).Nationalism Revived: The "Revival" Process in Bulgaria. Memories of Repression, Everyday Resistance and Neighborhood Relations 1984-1989(MA). Central European University History Department.
  • Şimşir, Bilâl (1988).The Turks of Bulgaria (1878-1985).K. Rustem and Brother.

External links[edit]

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