Rhetorica ad Herennium

Rhetorica ad Herennium

Author	CiceroorCornificius
Language	Latin
Subject	Rhetoric
Set in	Ancient Rome
Publication date	~ 90 BCE
Publication place	Roman Empire

TheRhetorica ad Herennium(Rhetoric for Herennius) is the oldest survivingLatinbook onrhetoric,dating from the late 80s BC.It was formerly attributed toCiceroorCornificius,but is in fact of unknown authorship, sometimes ascribed to an unnamed doctor.

Overview

TheRhetorica ad Herenniumwas addressed to Gaius Herennius (otherwise unknown). TheRhetoricaremained the most popular book on rhetoric during theMiddle Agesand theRenaissance.It was commonly used, along with Cicero'sDe Inventione,to teach rhetoric, and over one hundred manuscripts are extant. It was also translated extensively into European vernacular languages and continued to serve as the standard schoolbook text on rhetoric during the Renaissance. The work focuses on the practical applications and examples of rhetoric. It is also the first book to teach rhetoric in a highly structured and disciplined form.

Its discussion ofelocutio(style) is the oldest surviving systematic treatment of Latin style, and many of the examples are of contemporaryRomanevents. This new style, which flowered in the century following this work's writing, promoted revolutionary advances inRoman literatureand oratory. However, according to some analysts, teaching oratory in Latin was inherently controversial because oratory was seen as a political tool, which had to be kept in the hands of the Greek-speaking upper class.TheRhetorica ad Herenniumcan be seen as part of a liberal populist movement, carried forward by those, like L. Plotius Gallus, who was the first to open a school of rhetoric at Rome conducted entirely in Latin. He opened the school in 93 BCE.The work contains the first known description of themethod of loci,amnemonictechnique.Ad Herenniumalso provides the first complete treatment ofmemoria(memorization of speeches).

According to the work, there are three types of causes that a speaker would address:

• Demonstrativum,where there is praise or condemnation of a particular person
• Deliberativum,where policy is discussed
• Iudiciale,where legal controversies are addressed

TheRhetorica ad Herenniumsuggests that in a standard format for argument (widely followed today in anyfive part essay) there were six steps:

• Exordium,in which the writer uses relevant generalities, anecdotes, quotes, or analogies to capture attention and then connects them to the specific topic
• Narratio,in which the author succinctly states what will be the argument, thesis or point that is to be proven
• Divisio,in which the author outlines the main points, or reviews the debate to clarify what needs to be discussed further
• Confirmatio,which sets out the arguments (often three) for the thesis that the author supports as well as evidence supporting them
• Refutatio,which sets out and refutes the opposing arguments
• Conclusio,which is a summary of the argument, describing the urgency of the viewpoint and actions that could be taken

TheRhetorica ad Herenniumdivides oral rhetoric into three styles. Each style has traits that make it most effective for specific purposes in oration.

• Grand,a style using intricate arrangement of complex language

  The diction used is formal and impressive. The purpose of this style is to move an audience, either emotionally or to perform some action.

• Middle,a style using more relaxed language than the Grand style but not quite at the level of casual conversation

  It avoids using colloquialisms but is not overly formal. The Middle style's purpose is to please or entertain an audience.

• Simple,a style using ordinary speech common to everyday conversation

  It uses colloquialisms and informal language, and is best suited for instruction and explanation.

Rhetorical figures from Book 4

Book 4 of theRhetorica ad Herennium'ssystematic treatment of Latin oratory style identifies two categories of rhetorical devices, orFigures.These areFigures of Diction,which are identifiable in the language itself, andFigures of Thought,which are derived from the ideas presented. Although these figures have been in use in rhetoric throughout history, theRhetorica ad Herenniumwas the first text to compile them and discuss the effects they have on an audience. Many of the following figures described in Book 4 are still used inmodern rhetoric,though they were originally intended specifically for use in oral debate.

TheFigures of Dictioninclude the following:

• Epanaphora,when the same word starts successive sentences
• Antistrophe,when the same word ends successive sentences
• Interlacement,when the previous two occur simultaneously
• Transplacement,when the same word is reused frequently

The repetition of the same word in these four figures produces an elegant and pleasant sound for the listener, rather than simply being repetitive.

• Antithesisis when the structure of the sentence is built upon contraries.
• Apostropheexpresses grief or resentment by addressing a specific person or object.
• Interrogationreinforces an argument by asking the opposition a series of rhetorical questions after they have presented their case, whilereasoning by question and answerinvolves asking and answering oneself the reasoning behind every statement made.

These figures use conversational style to hold the audience's attention.

• Amaximis a saying that concisely shows what happens in life and therefore ought to happen as it applies to the situation the speaker is talking about.
• Reasoning by contrariesuses one statement to prove an opposite statement.
• Colonorclauseis when a series of up to three brief but complete clauses are strung together to communicate an entire thought; it is calledisocolonwhen the clauses have an equal number of syllables.
• Similar to this is thecommaorphrase,where single words are split up in a sentence to give it a halting, staccato sound.

Both these figures create emphasis on the independent words or clauses within the entire thought;Periodis the opposite, in which words in a sentence are close-packed and uninterrupted to form a complete thought.

• Homoeoptotonoccurs when two or more words in the same sentence are in the same case with the same ending;
• in contrast,homoeoteleutonfeatures words without inflection that have the same ending.
• Paronomasia(a term often treated as a formal term for apun) changes a sound or a letter in a word to make it sound similar to another word with a different meaning; these three figures are most relevant in highly inflected languages with cases like Latin, and theRhetorica ad Herenniumstates they are best used in speeches of entertainment.
• Hypophoraoccurs in debate when the speaker asks himself or his opponent what points can be made against his case or in favor of the opponent's, then uses the response (whether his own or his opponent's) to attack the position of the opponent.
• Climaxis the repetition of a preceding word in the process of moving on to a new one. (An example is "The industry of Africanus brought him excellence, his excellence glory, his glory rivals." )
• Definitionis the concise statement of a person or object's characteristic traits,transitionrestates a previous statement to set up the presentation of a new one, andcorrectionis the deliberate retraction of a statement in order to replace it with a more fitting one.Paralipsisis best used as an indirect reference in a debate, it occurs when a speaker pretends to be passing or ignorant of points that are not relevant, when he is actually addressing them as points relevant to the discussion.

Disjunctionhappens when two or more clauses end in verbs with similar meanings,conjunctionwhen the clauses are connected by one verb between them, andadjunctionwhen the verb connecting the clauses is located at the beginning or end. The author groups these three figures together, stating that disjunction is best suited for limited use to convey elegance while one should use conjunction more frequently for its brevity.

Reduplicationis the repetition of words for emphasis or an appeal to pity.SynonymyorInterpretationis similar to reduplication, only instead of repeating the same word it replaces it with a synonym.Reciprocal changeis when two differing thoughts are arranged so that one follows the other despite the discrepancy (example: I do not write poems, because I cannot write the sort I wish, and I do not wish to write the sort I can).Surrenderevokes pity by submitting to another's opinion on the topic. A speaker usesindecisionby asking rhetorically which of two or more words he should use.Eliminationlists multiple options or possibilities, and then systematically removes all except one of them, the point the speaker is arguing.Asyndetonis the presentation of concise clauses connected without conjunctions, which theRhetorica ad Herenniumclaims creates animation and power in the speech.Aposiopesisoccurs when a speaker deliberately does not finish a statement about his opponent, allowing suspicion of his opponent to settle in the audience.Conclusionidentifies the necessary consequences or results of a previous statement.

The author distinguishes the last ten figures of diction from the rest. The common characteristic of these ten figures is the application of language beyond the strict meaning of the words. The first he identifies asOnomatopoeia,the term given for words assigned to sounds we cannot properly imitate with language, such as "hiss" or "roar."Antonomasiaorpronominationis the use of an epithet when addressing a person or object in place of their proper name.Metonymyoccurs when an object is referred to as something closely associated with it rather than its proper name.Periphrasisis the use of more words than are necessary to express a simple idea (example: "The steadiness of the tortoise defeated the impatience of the hare," rather than "The tortoise defeated the hare," ).Hyperbatonupsets the order of the words used.Hyperboleexaggerates the truth.Synecdocheoccurs when a whole point is understood when only a small part is addressed.Catachresisis the use of an inexact but similar word in place of the proper one (example: The power of man isshort). The author definesmetaphoras the application of one object to another due to some indirect similarity, andallegoryas the implication of multiple meanings to a phrase beyond the actual letter of the words used.

TheFigures of Thoughtinclude: Distribution,which assigns specific roles to a number of objects or people in order to identify their place in the structure of the argument, andfrankness of speech,in which the speaker exercises his right to speak freely despite the presence of superiors.Understatementoccurs when a speaker downplays a particular advantage he might have over someone in order to avoid appearing arrogant.Vivid descriptiondescribes the consequences of something with impressive and elaborate detail.Divisionseparates all the possible causes of something, and then resolves them with reasoning that is connected.Accumulationis the connection of all the points made throughout an argument at the end of a speech, adding emphasis to the conclusion.Dwelling on the pointis the continuous repetition of the same point, whilerefiningdisguises dwelling on the same topic by continuously saying the same thing in new ways.Dialogueis used as a figure of thought when the speaker puts words in the mouth of his opponent for the sake of rhetorical conversation to illustrate his point.Comparisonspoint out similar traits in different people or objects, whileexemplificationis the citing of something done in the past along with the name of the person or thing that did it.Portrayalidentifies a person with a physical description rather than their name, whilecharacter delineationidentifies a person with noticeable elements of their character or personality. Both of these figures allow the speaker to draw particular attentions to specific traits of that person.Personificationassigns an inanimate object or an absent person traits to help the audience understand its character.Emphasisleaves more to be suspected about a topic than what is actually said, whileconcisenessis the precise expression of a thought using the least amount of language possible.Ocular demonstrationis similar to vivid description, though the emphasis is on the visual elements of the scene described.

Old French translation

At the request ofWilliam of Santo Stefano,theRhetorica ad Herenniumwas translated intoOld FrenchbyJohn of Antiochin 1282.

See also

• Rhetorical operations
• Five paragraph essay
• Cicero,De Inventione
• Rhetorica ad Alexandrum

References

• Rhetorica ad Herennium(Friedrich Marx,ed.Prolegomena in editio maior), Teubner, Leipzig, 1923.
• Golla, Georg.Sprachliche Beobachtungen zum auctor ad Herennium,Breslau, 1935.
• Kroll, Wilhelm.Die Entwicklung der lateinischen Sprache,Glotta22 (1934). 24-27.
• Kroll, Wilhelm.Der Text des Cornificius,Philologus 89 (1934). 63-84
• Tolkiehn, Johannes.Jahresbuch des philologischen Vereins zu Berlin45 (1919)

External links

• Rhetorica ad Herenniumat theInternet Archive.Latin text with English translation by Harry Caplan. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 1954.
• Liber rethoricorum Ms. Codex 1630from Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts. Latin manuscript written in protohumanistic script from northern Italy, possibly Venice, between 1440 and 1460.
• Commentaria ad Rhetoricam Ciceronis(UPenn MS Codex 1629) from Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts University of Pennsylvania. Latin manuscript, [Italy], 1342.
• Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)."Cornificius".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 173–174.This discusses the work under the now disputed name of the author.