Roger II of Sicily

"Roger II" redirects here. For the Viscount of Carcassonne, seeRoger II Trencavel.

Roger II
Detail of amosaicshowing Roger II (Rogerios Rexin Greek letters) receiving the crown from Jesus Christ (IC),Martorana,Palermo.
Count of Sicily
Reign	1105 – 27 September 1130
Predecessor	Simon
King of Sicily
Reign	27 September 1130 – 26 February 1154
Coronation	25 December 1130
Successor	William I
Born	22 December 1095 Mileto(Calabria)
Died	26 February 1154(1154-02-26)(aged 58) Palermo,Kingdom of Sicily
Burial	Cathedral of Palermo,Sicily
Spouse	Elvira of Castile Sibylla of Burgundy Beatrice of Rethel
Issue Among others	Roger III, Duke of Apulia Tancred, Prince of Bari Alfonso of Capua William I, King of Sicily Constance, Queen of Sicily Simon, Prince of Taranto
House	Hauteville
Father	Roger I of Sicily
Mother	Adelaide del Vasto

Roger IIorRoger the Great(Italian:Ruggero II,Sicilian:Ruggeru II,Greek:Ρογέριος; 22 December 1095– 26 February 1154) was King ofSicilyandAfrica,son ofRoger I of Sicilyand successor to his brotherSimon.He began his rule asCount of Sicilyin 1105, becameDuke of Apulia and Calabriain 1127, thenKing of Sicilyin 1130 andKing of Africain 1148.

Background

See also:Norman conquest of southern Italy

By 999,Normanadventurers had arrived in southern Italy.By 1016, they were involved in the complex local politics, where Lombards were fighting against theByzantine Empire.As mercenaries they fought the enemies of the Italian city-states, sometimes fighting for the Byzantines and sometimes against them, but in the following century they gradually became the rulers of the majorpolitiessouth of Rome.

Roger I ruled theCounty of Sicilyat the time of the birth of his youngest son, Roger, atMileto,Calabria,in 1095.Roger I's nephew,Roger Borsa,was theDuke of Apulia and Calabria,and his great nephew,Richard II of Capua,was thePrince of Capua.Alongside these three major rulers were a large number of minorcounts,who effectively exercised sovereign power in their own localities. These counts at least nominally owed allegiance to one of these three Norman rulers, but such allegiance was usually weak and often ignored.

When Roger I died in 1101, his young sonSimonbecame count, with his motherAdelaide del Vastoasregent.Simon died four years later in 1105 at the age of 12. Adelaide continued as regent to her younger son Roger, who was nine.

Reign

Rise to power in Sicily

Southern Italy in 1112. The border of theKingdom of Sicilyat the time of Roger's death in 1154 is indicated by a thicker black line encircling most of southern Italy.

Upon the death in 1105 of his elder brother, Simon of Hauteville, Roger inherited the County of Sicily under the regency of his mother, Adelaide del Vasto. His mother was assisted by such notables asChristodulus,the GreekemirofPalermo.In 1109, Byzantine EmperorAlexios I Komnenosbestowed upon him the title ofprotonobilissimosin recognition of his knowledge of the Byzantine court.In the summer of 1110, Roger was visited by the Norwegian kingSigurd the Crusader,who was on his way toJerusalem.The story in Icelandic sources suggests that Sigurd called Roger the king of Sicily twenty years before the latter actually obtained this title.

In 1112, at the age of sixteen, Roger began his personal rule, being named "now knight, now count of Sicily and Calabria" in a charter document dated 12 June 1112.In 1117, his mother, who had marriedBaldwin I of Jerusalem,returned to Sicily, since the patriarch of Jerusalem had declared the marriage invalid. Roger seems to have felt the slight, and this might explain his later reluctance to go crusading.Roger married his first wife,Elvira,daughter of KingAlfonso VI of Castileand, later, his fourth wife, Isabella, who may be identical to his former concubine, the converted Moor, Zaida, who was baptized with the name of Isabella.

In 1122, DukeWilliam II of Apulia,who was fighting with CountJordan of Ariano,offered to renounce his remaining claims to Sicily as well as part ofCalabria.Roger, in exchange, provided William with 600 knights and access to money for his campaign.

Rise to power in southern Italy

When William II of Apulia died childless in July 1127, Roger claimed allHauteville familypossessions in the peninsula as well as the overlordship of thePrincipality of Capua,which had been nominally given to Apulia almost thirty years earlier. However, the union of Sicily and Apulia was resisted byPope Honorius IIand by the subjects of the duchy itself.

Royal investiture

Royal mantle of Roger II, bearing an inscription in Arabic with theHijrahdate of 528 (1133–34).
Imperial Treasury, Vienna,in theHofburg Palace.

The popes had long been suspicious of the growth of Norman power in southern Italy, and at Capua in December, the pope preached acrusadeagainst Roger, settingRobert II of CapuaandRanulf II of Alife(his own brother-in-law) against him. After this coalition failed, in August 1128 Honorius invested Roger atBeneventoas Duke of Apulia.The baronial resistance, backed byNaples,Bari,Salerno,and other cities whose aim was civic freedom, gave way. In September 1129 Roger was generally recognized as duke of Apulia bySergius VII of Naples,Robert of Capua, and the rest. He began at once to enforce order in the duchy, where ducal power had long been fading.

On the death of Pope Honorius in February 1130 there were two claimants to the papal throne. Roger supportedAntipope Anacletus IIagainstInnocent II.The reward was a crown,and, on 27 September 1130, Anacletus'papal bullmade Roger king of Sicily.He was crowned inPalermoonChristmasDay 1130.

The Royal Mantle of Roger II

Roger II's elaborate royalmantlebears the year 528 of theIslamic calendar(1133–34); therefore it could not have been used for his coronation.This lavish item, made for special events to show power and regality, was most likely worn as a symbol of the Norman's victory and new dynasty in Sicily.It was later used as a coronation cloak by theHoly Roman Emperorsand is now in theImperial Treasury(Schatzkammer) inVienna.

The mantle is an example of the Normans' multicultural court and a mark of trade in Palermo. It is a luxury object made from red silk imported from the Byzantine Empire, its outer panels embellished with gold embroidery, pearls, enamel and jewels.The lining panels are separated into five sections made from three separate silks, each woven with gold.The pearls are from thePersian Gulf,with thousands outlining each section of the embroidery. Pearls were a common decoration on pan-Mediterranean textiles, but were also used and admired on clothing of the Byzantine Empire.The enameled surfaces are also attributed to the Byzantine Empire, as they had many craftsmen specializing in this type of work. The gold embroidery was most likely created by Muslim craftsmen, given thetirazbands, the Arabic text in calligraphy, andKuficscript.The piece was made in a private royal workshop, dedicated to creating tiraz fabric and other royal garments.It is one of few surviving mementos ofFatimid-style royal garb preserved in its entirety.

The inscription written in the tiraz band along the bottom of the piece states, "Here is what was created in the princely treasury, filled with luck, eminence, majesty, perfection, long-suffering, superiority, welcome, prosperity, liberality, brilliance, pride, beauty, the fulfillment of desires and hopes, the pleasure of days and nights, without cease or change, of glory, devotion, preservation of protection, luck, salvation, victory and capability, in the capital of Sicily, in the year 528 H. [1133–1134]"This mantle was made to promote status, bring the wearer good fortune, and to emphasize Roger II's regal power.

In addition to its lavish decoration and color, the mantle uses striking imagery to convey Roger II's power and victory over the previous dynasty. In a scene evoking domination through primal violence, two lions, aheraldicsymbol of a powerful, male ruler, each attack a camel,addorsedon either side of a central palm tree.The lions are stylized rather than realistically portrayed. There are also evocations of the cosmos and constellations in the star shapes on the lions' heads. The mantle's pan-Mediterranean influence is brought out in the materials used to create it, the way it was made, and its design.

Peninsular rebellions

Roger's backing of Anacletus plunged him into a ten-year war.Bernard of Clairvaux,Innocent's champion, organized a coalition against Anacletus and his "half-heathen king". He was joined byLouis VI of France,Henry I of England,andLothair III, Holy Roman Emperor.Meanwhile, southern Italy revolted.

In 1130, theDuchy of Amalfirevolted and in 1131, Roger sentJohn of Palermoacross theStrait of Messinato join up with a royal troop from Apulia and Calabria and march on Amalfi by land whileGeorge of Antiochblockaded the town by sea and set up a base onCapri.Amalfi soon capitulated.

In 1132, Roger sentRobert II of CapuaandRanulf II of AlifetoRomein a show of force in support of Anacletus. While they were away, Roger's half-sister Matilda, Ranulf's wife, fled to Roger claiming abuse. Simultaneously, Roger annexed Ranulf's brother's County ofAvellino.Ranulf demanded the restitution of both wife and countship. Both were denied, and Ranulf left Rome against orders, with Robert following.

Roger IIriding to war, from theLiber ad honorem AugustiofPetrus de Ebulo,1196.

First Roger dealt with a rebellion in Apulia, where he defeated and deposedGrimoald, Prince of Bari,replacing him with his second sonTancred.Meanwhile, Robert and Ranulf took papalBenevento.Roger went to meet them but was defeated at theBattle of Noceraon 25 July 1132. He retreated to Salerno.

The next year, Lothair III came down to Rome for his imperial coronation. The rebel leaders met him there, but they were refused help because Lothair's force was too small.With the emperor's departure, divisions in his opponents' ranks allowed Roger to reverse his fortunes. By July 1134, his troops had forced Ranulf, Sergius, and the other ringleaders to submit. Robert was expelled from Capua and Roger installed his third son,Alfonso of Hauteville,as Prince of Capua. Roger II's eldest sonRogerwas given the title of Duke of Apulia.

Meanwhile, Lothair's contemplated attack upon Roger had gained the backing of theRepublic of Pisa,theRepublic of Genoa,and theByzantine emperorJohn II,each of whom feared the growth of a powerful Norman kingdom. A Pisan fleet led by the exiled prince of Capua dropped anchor off Naples in 1135. Ranulf joined Robert and Sergius there, encouraged by news coming from Sicily that Roger was fatally ill or even already dead. The important fortress ofAversa,among others, passed to the rebels and only Capua resisted, under the royal chancellor,Guarin.On 5 June, however, Roger disembarked in Salerno, much to the surprise of all the mainland provinces. The royal army, split into several forces, easily conquered Aversa and even Alife, the base of the natural rebel leader, Ranulf. Most of the rebels took refuge inNaples,which was besieged in July, but despite poor health conditions within the city, Roger was unable to take it, and returned toMessinalate in the year.

Imperial invasion

TheTabula Rogeriana,anancient world mapdrawn byMuhammad al-Idrisifor Roger II of Sicily in 1154. North is at the bottom, the reverse of moderncartographicconventions.

In 1136, the long-awaited imperial army, led by Lothair and theDuke of Bavaria,Henry the Proud,descended the peninsula to support the three rebels. Henry, Robert, and Ranulf took a large contingent of troops to besiege the peninsular capital of the kingdom,Salerno.Roger remained in Sicily, leaving its mainland garrisons helpless under the chancellorRobert of Selby,while even the Byzantine emperorJohn II Comnenussent subsidies to Lothair. Salerno surrendered, and the large army of Germans and Normans marched to the very south of Apulia. There, in June 1137, Lothair besieged and tookBari.AtSan Severino,after the victorious campaign, he and the pope jointly invested Ranulf as Duke of Apulia in August 1137, and the emperor then retired to Germany. Roger, freed from the utmost danger, immediately disembarked in Calabria, atTropea,with 400 knights and other troops, probably mostlyMuslims.After having been welcomed by the Salernitans, he recovered ground inCampania,sackingPozzuoli,Alife, Capua, and Avellino. Sergius was forced to acknowledge him as overlord of Naples and switch his allegiance to Anacletus. This moment marked the fall of an independent Neapolitan duchy, and thereafter the ancient city was fully integrated into the Norman realm.

From there Roger moved to Benevento and northern Apulia, where Duke Ranulf, although steadily losing his bases of power, had some German troops plus some 1,500 knights from the cities ofMelfi,Trani,Troia,and Bari, who were "ready to die rather than lead a miserable life". On 30 October 1137, at theBattle of Rignano(next toMonte Gargano), the younger Roger and his father, with Sergius of Naples, met the defensive army of Duke Ranulf. It was the greatest defeat of Roger II's career. Sergius died and Roger fled to Salerno. It capped Ranulf's meteoric career: twice victor over Roger. Anacletus II died in January 1138, but Innocent II refused to reconcile with the king.

In spring 1138, the royal army invaded thePrincipality of Capua,with the precise intent of avoiding a pitched battle and of dispersing Ranulf's army with a series of marches through difficult terrain. While the Count of Alife hesitated, Roger, now supported by Benevento, destroyed all the rebels' castles in the region, capturing an immense booty. In April 1139, at the Second Council of the Lateran, Innocent II declared Roger excommunicated.Ranulf himself, who had taken refuge in his capital Troia, died of malarial fever on 30 April 1139. Roger exhumed his body from his grave in Troia cathedral and threw it in a ditch, only to repent subsequently and rebury him decently.

At this time, with Sergius dead, Alfonso was elected to replace him and together with his brother Roger went off to conquer theAbruzzi.

Consolidation of kingship

ARScyphateDucalis, dated year 10 (1140), after the king's victory on 25 July. Obverse: Christ. Reverse: King Roger and Duke Roger.

After the death of Anacletus in January 1138, Roger had sought the confirmation of his title from Innocent. However, the pope wanted an independent Principality of Capua as a buffer state between theKingdom of Sicilyand thePapal States,something Roger would not accept.In the summer of 1139, Innocent II invaded the kingdom with a large army, but was ambushed on 22 July 1139 atGalluccio,southeast of present-dayCassino,by Roger's son and was captured. Three days later, by theTreaty of Mignano,the pope proclaimed Roger IIrex Siciliae ducatus Apuliae et principatus Capuae(King of Sicily, Duke of Apulia and commander of Capua). The boundaries of hisregnowere only later fixed by a truce with the pope in October 1144. These lands were for the next seven centuries to constitute the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily.

In 1139, Bari, the 50,000 inhabitants of which had remained unscathed behind its massive walls during the wars of the past year, decided to surrender. Theexcellentissimus princepsJaquintus,who had led the rebellion of the city, was hanged, along with many of his followers, but the city avoided being sacked. Roger's execution of the prince and his counsellors was perhaps the most violent act of his life.

While his sons overcame pockets of resistance on the mainland, on 5 November 1139 Roger returned to Palermo to plan a great act of legislation: theAssizes of Ariano,an attempt to establish his dominions in southern Italy as a coherent state. He returned to check on his sons' progress in 1140 and then went toAriano,a town central to the peninsular possessions (and a center of rebellion under his predecessors). There he promulgated the great law regulating allSicilianaffairs. It invested the king and his bureaucracy with absolute powers and reduced the authority of the often rebellious vassals. While there, centralising his kingdom, Roger declared a new standard coinage, named after the duchy of Apulia: theducat.

Economy

Coin of Roger II of Sicily, silver Ducale, Brindisi mint.

Roger's reforms in laws and administration aimed not only to strengthen his rule but also to improve the economic standing of Sicily andsouthern Italy.He was "very concerned to gain money, but hardly very prodigal in expending it".

In 1140 at his assembly at Ariano he introduced new coinage including smaller denominations, to facilitate trade with the rest of the Mediterranean. However, although this new coinage made long-distance trade easier, it was detrimental to local trade, which spread "hatred throughout Italy".By the 1150s most of this coinage was no longer in use and soon after, it disappeared altogether.

Nevertheless, the controversy over the coinage did not hinder the Kingdom's prosperity. Roger II had acquired large wealth not only through his royal patrimony but also through his military campaigns and their financial rewards. For example, gold and silver were gained through the campaigns in Apulia in 1133 and Greece in 1147.

Sicily's geographic situation at the centre of theMediterraneanfavored trade with Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Its primary export wasdurum wheat;others included foods like cheese and vine fruits. Unlike other states, Sicily also had a strong political and military standing, so its merchants were supported and to some extent protected.This standing allowed for an increase in internal trade and a stronger market, which led to noticeable developments in agriculture.

Later reign

See also:Norman-Arab-Byzantine cultureandKingdom of Africa

"TheCappella Palatina,at Palermo, the most wonderful of Roger's churches, withNorman doors,Saracenic arches,Byzantine dome,and roof adorned withArabic scripts,is perhaps the most striking product of the brilliant and mixed civilization over which the grandson of the NormanTancredruled. "(From the 1911Encyclopædia Britannica).

Roger had now become one of the greatest kings in Europe. At Palermo, he gathered round him distinguished men from a variety of ethnicities and cultures, such as the famousArab geographerMuhammad al-Idrisiand the ByzantineGreek historianNilus DoxopatriusorNeilos Doxapatres.Sicily, in the center of the Mediterranean and a natural stopping point for people traveling across it, had been run by several different groups in its history, and Roger welcomed the learned and practiced tolerance toward the several religions, ethnicities and languages of his realm.To administer his domain he hired manyGreeksandArabs,who were trained in long-established traditions of centralized government.He was served by men of several nationalities, such as the EnglishmanThomas Brun,akaidof theCuria,and in the fleet by two Greeks, first Christodulus and thenGeorge of Antioch,whom he made in 1132ammiratus ammiratorumor "Emir of Emirs", in effect primevizier.(This title later became the English wordadmiral). Roger made Sicily the leading maritime power in the Mediterranean.

Roger II's "Kingdom of Africa" (Regno d'Africa) pinpointed in red

A powerful fleet was built up under several admirals, or "emirs", of whom the greatest was George, formerly in the service of the Muslim prince ofMahdia.Mainly thanks to him, aseries of conquests were made on the African coast(1146–1153). From 1135 Roger II started to conquer the coast of Tunisia and enlarge his dominions:Tripoliwas captured in 1146 andCape Bonain 1148. These conquests were lost in the reign of Roger's successor William, however, and never formed an integral part of the kingdom in southern Italy.

TheSecond Crusade(1147–1148) offered Roger an opportunity torevive attackson theByzantine Empire,the traditional Norman enemy to the East. It also afforded him an opportunity, through the agency ofTheodwin,a cardinal ever-vigilant for Crusade supporters, to strike up a correspondence withConrad III of Germanyin an effort to break his alliance withManuel I Comnenus.Roger himself never went on an expedition against Byzantium, instead handing command to the skillful George. In 1147, George set sail fromOtrantowith seventy galleys to attackCorfu.According toNicetas Choniates,the island capitulated thanks to George's bribes (and the tax burden of the imperial government), welcoming the Normans as their liberators. Leaving a garrison of 1,000 men, George sailed on to thePeloponnesus.He sackedAthensand quickly moved on to theAegean Islands.He ravaged the coast all alongEuboeaand theGulf of Corinthand penetrated as far asThebes,where he pillaged the silk factories and carried off the damask, brocade, and silk weavers, taking them back to Palermo where they formed the basis for the Sicilian silk industry. George capped the expedition with a sack ofCorinth,in which the relics ofSaint Theodorewere stolen, and then returned to Sicily. In 1149, however, Corfu was retaken. George went on apunitive expeditionagainst Constantinople, but could not land and instead defied the Byzantine emperor by firing arrows against the palace windows. Despite this act, his expedition left no enduring effects.

Roger died atPalermoon 26 February 1154 and was buried in theCathedral of Palermo.He was succeeded by his fourth son,William.

Modern legacy

Roger is the subject ofKing Roger,a 1926 opera by Polish composerKarol Szymanowski.The last months of his life are also featured inTariq Ali's bookA Sultan in Palermo.Studiorum Universitas Ruggero II, a private non-traditional university connected toAccademia Normannawas incorporated in the U.S. on 30 April 2001 in his honor.

Family

Roger's tomb in the Cathedral of Palermo

Roger's first marriage was in 1117 toElvira,a daughter of KingAlfonso VI of Castile.When she died, rumors flew that Roger had died as well, as his grief had made him a recluse.They had six children:

• Roger III(1118 – 12 May 1148), heir,Duke of Apulia(from 1135), possibly also Count ofLecce.
• Tancred(1120–1138), Prince of Bari (from 1135).
• William I(1120/1121 – 7 May 1166), his successor,Duke of Apulia(from 1148).
• Alfonso(1122 – 10 October 1144),Prince of Capua(from 1135) andDuke of Naples.
• Adelisia (1226 - post 1184), regnant duchess of Florence. She married firstly Jozzelino, Count of Loreto, and secondlyRobert III, Count of Loritello.
• Henry (1130 - 1143), prince of Taranto.

Roger's second marriage was in 1149 toSibylla,daughter ofHugh II, Duke of Burgundy.They had two children:

• Henry (29 August 1149 – died young)
• Stillborn child (16 September 1150)

Roger's third marriage was in 1151 toBeatrice of Rethel,a grandniece of KingBaldwin II of Jerusalem.They had one daughter:

• Constance(born posthumously, 2 November 1154 – 28 November 1198),who marriedEmperor Henry VIand was later Queen of Sicily

Roger also had five known illegitimate children:

—By a daughter of Hugues I, Count of Molise:

• Simon,who becamePrince of Tarantoin 1144

—With unknown mistresses:

• A daughter, wife of Rodrigo Garcés (laterHenry, Count of Montescaglioso)
• A daughter, wife of the Neapolitan nobleman Adam
• Clemenza, married Hugues II, Count of Molise
• Marina or Martina, married the admiralMargaritus of Brindisi

See also

• Palazzo dei Normanni(palace)

References

Works cited

• Barber, Malcolm (2004).The Two Cities: Medieval Europe 1050–1320.Routledge.ISBN0415174155.
• Bauer, Rotraud (2004). "Der Mantel Rogers II. und die siculo-normannischen Gewänder aus den königlichen Hofwerkstätten in Palermo". In Seipel, Wilfried (ed.).Nobiles Officinae. Die königlichen Hofwerkstätten zu Palermo zur Zeit der Normannen und Staufer im 12. und 13. Jahrhundert(in German). Milano.
• Britt, Karen C. (2007). "Roger II of Sicily: Rex, Basileus, and Khalif? Identity, Politics, and Propaganda in the Cappella Palatina".Mediterranean Studies.16.Penn State University Press: 21–45.doi:10.2307/41167003.JSTOR41167003.
• Chibnall, Marjorie (2006).The Normans.Wiley & Sons.
• Houben, Hubert (2002).Roger II of Sicily: Ruler between East and West.Translated by Loud, Graham A.; Milburn, Diane. Cambridge University Press.
• Luscombe, David; Riley-Smith, Jonathan, eds. (2004).The New Cambridge Medieval History.Vol. 4, c. 1024–c. 1198, Part II. Cambridge University Press.
• Matthew, Donald (1992).The Norman Kingdom of Sicily.Cambridge Medieval Textbooks.
• Robinson, Ian Stuart (1990).The Papacy, 1073–1198: Continuity and Innovation.Cambridge University Press.
• Schipa, Michaelangelo (1957). "Italy and Sicily under Frederick II". In Tanner, J.R.; Previté-Orton, C. W.; Brooke, Zachary Nugent (eds.).The Cambridge Medieval History.Vol. IV. Cambridge University Press.
• Takayama, Hiroshi (1993).The Administration of the Norman Kingdom of Sicily.E.J. Brill.
• Dolezalek, Isabelle (2013). "Textile Connections? Two Ifrīqiyan Church Treasuries in Norman Sicily and the Problem of Continuity across Political Change"Al-Masaq.92–112
• Kapitaikin, Lev A. (2017). "Sicily and the Staging of Multiculturalism"A Companion to Islamic Art and ArchitectureJohn Wiley and Sons Inc. 378–404
• "Quantara – Mantle of Roger II of Sicily" qantara-med.org.
• Sokoly, Jochen (2017). "Textiles and Identity". In Flood, Finbarr Barry; Necipoğlu, Gülru (eds.).A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture.Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 275–299.doi:10.1002/9781119069218.ch11.ISBN978-1119069218.
• "Tiraz: Inscribed Textiles from the Early Islamic Period".Metropolitan Museum. 2015.

General references

• Alexander of Telese,The Deeds of Roger.
• Alio, Jacqueline (2018).Queens of Sicily 1061–1266: The queens consort, regent and regnant of the Norman-Swabian era of the Kingdom of Sicily.Trinacria.
• Aubé, Pierre.Roger II de Sicile.2001.
• Hamel, PasqualeL'invenzione del regno, dalla conquista normanna alla fondazione del Regnum Siciliae (1061/1154)(Palermo, 2009)
• Holmes, George,The Oxford IllustratedHistory of Medieval Europe.OUP, 1988.
• Mendola, Louis (2015).The Kingdom of Sicily 1130–1860.Trinacria.
• Alex MetcalfeThe Muslims of Medieval Italy(Edinburgh, 2009)
• Francois Neveux.The Normans,Constable & Robinson, London, 2008 (translated by Howard Curtis).
• Norwich, John Julius.The Normans in the South 1016–1130.Longmans:London,1967.
• Norwich, John Julius.The Kingdom in the Sun 1130–1194.Longman:London,1970.
• Rowe, John Gordon. "The Papacy and the Greeks (1122–1153) (Part II)."Church History,Vol. 28, No. 3. (Sep., 1959), pp. 310–327.
• Wieruszowski, Helen. "Roger II of Sicily, Rex-Tyrannus, In Twelfth-Century Political Thought."Speculum,Vol. 38, No. 1. (Jan., 1963), pp. 46–78.

External links

• Adrian Fletcher’s Paradoxplace – Palermo and the First Normans – Photos
• Al-Idrisi And Roger’s Book,written by Frances Carney Gies.
• Assizes of ArianoBoth codices in Latin.