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Roman mosaic

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A Roman mosaic on a wall in the House ofNeptuneandAmphitrite,Herculaneum,Italy, 1st century AD

ARoman mosaicis amosaicmade during theRomanperiod, throughout theRoman Republicand laterEmpire.Mosaics were used in a variety of private and public buildings,[1]on both floors and walls, though they competed with cheaperfrescosfor the latter. They were highly influenced by earlier and contemporaryHellenisticGreekmosaics, and often included famous figures from history and mythology, such asAlexander the Greatin theAlexander Mosaic.

A large proportion of the surviving examples of wall mosaics come from Italian sites such asPompeiiandHerculaneum.Otherwise, floor mosaics are far more likely to have survived, with many coming from thefringes of the Roman Empire.TheBardo National MuseuminTunishas an especially large collection from large villas in modernTunisia.[2]

Development

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Further information:Hellenistic art § Paintings and mosaics,Ancient Greek art § Mosaics,andMosaics of Delos
A Romanmosaicinscribed with theLatin phrasecave canem( "beware of the dog"), from theHouse of the Tragic PoetinPompeii,Italy, 2nd century BC
Mosaic with Xenia, 4th century AD, Pius Clementine museum,Vatican Museums

Perhaps the earliest examples of Greco-Roman mosaic floors date to the lateRepublican period(2nd century BC) and arefrom Delos,Greece. Witts claims thattessellatedpavements, usingtesserae,were used in Europe from the late fifth to early fourth centuries BC.[3]This is contradicted by Ruth Westgate, who contends that the earliest tessellated mosaics of theHellenistic perioddate to the 3rd century BC, with the 2nd to early 1st-century BCmosaics of Delosconstituting roughly half of the known examples.[4]Hetty Joyce andKatherine M. D. Dunbabinconcur with this assessment, asserting that the transition frompebblemosaics to more complex tessellated mosaics originated in Hellenistic-Greek Sicilyduring the 3rd century BC, developed at sites such asMorgantinaandSyracuse.[5][6]The earliest knownpebble mosaicsand use ofchip pavementare found atOlynthusin Greece'sChalcidice,dated to the 5th to 4th centuries BC, while other examples can be found atPella,capital ofMacedon,dated to the 4th century BC.[7][6]

The earliest mosaics of RomanPompeii,dated to thePompeian First Styleof wall painting in the late 2nd and early 1st centuries BC, were clearly derived from theHellenistic Greek model.[8]However, they contained far more figured scenes on average, less abstract design, the absence ofleadstrips, as well as an almost complete lack of complex, three-dimensional scenes utilizingpolychromyuntil thePompeian Second Styleof wall painting (80–20 BC).[9][8]

The mosaics in theVilla Romana del Casale(c. 300 AD) fromRoman Sicilyperhaps represent the hallmark of mosaic art in theLate Imperial period.The mosaic decoration of the local palace complex culminates in the gallery, which contains a scene of animal hunting and fighting covering an area of 3,200 square feet (300 m2).[10]

TheAlexander Mosaicfrom Pompeii, ca. 100 BC

Technology

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Mosaic ofEastern RomanemperorJustinian I,6th century

Roman mosaics are constructed from geometrical blocks calledtesserae,[11]placed together to create the shapes of figures, motifs and patterns.[3]Materials for tesserae were obtained from local sources of natural stone, with the additions of cut brick, tile and pottery creating coloured shades of, predominantly, blue, black, red, white and yellow.[3]Polychrome patterns were most common, butmonochromeexamples are known.[12]Marble and glass were occasionally used as tesserae,[13]as were small pebbles,[14]and precious metals likegold.[15]

Mosaic decoration was not just confined to floors but featured on walls and vaults as well. Traces of guidelines have been found beneath some mosaics, either scored into or painted onto the mortar bedding. The design might also be pegged out in string,[3]or mounted in a wooden frame.[16]

The collapse of buildings in antiquity can, paradoxically, both irrevocably destroy mosaics or protect and preserve them.[3]

Imagery

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Achillesbeing adored byprincesses of Skyros,a scene from theIliadwhereOdysseus(Ulysses) discovers him dressed as a woman and hiding among the princesses at the royal court of Skyros. A late RomanmosaicfromLa Olmeda,Spain, 4th-5th centuries AD

Roman mosaics frequently depicted religious figures, theatrical scenes, mythological stories, geometric labyrinth patterns, and other decorative designs.[17][18][19]

Portraits

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Imagery of famous individuals or entertaining scenes are common on Roman mosaics. TheAlexander Mosaicfrom theHouse of the Faun,Pompeiidepicts theBattle of IssusbetweenAlexander the GreatandDarius III.[20]In addition to famous people from antiquity, mosaics can depict aspects of daily life. TheGladiator MosaicfromRomedepicts a fighting scene, naming each gladiator involved. A gladiatorial scene is also known fromLeptis Magna.[21]

Roman portrait mosaics, as well as Roman portraits in general, often depicted men and women with similar physical features or attire. This practice became especially commonplace during the Imperial Period and dates back to as early as 18 BC. There is evidence for this in a series of Denarii (Roman silver coins), which portray the goddessVirtuswith recognizable Augustan features.[22]

Geometric Mosaics

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One common type of Roman mosaics are geometric mosaics, which there is evidence for all across the Roman Empire. Geometric mosaics are often made up of intricate patterns in the style of mazes or labyrinths. There are 57 known floor mosaics in the style of labyrinths, and the majority of them are found in private homes or bathhouses. All 57 were catalogued in 1977 by German archaeologist, Wiktor Daszewski.[23]Scholar Rebecca Molholt discusses the reasoning behind why so many of the known maze mosaics were found in bathhouses. Maze mosaics were believed to have apotropaic powers and this is reflected in many mosaics which incorporate scenes of mythical creatures or stories. Furthermore, labyrinth mosaics were considered to be bearers of good luck for those who could successfully make their way through the maze. On their way to bathe, athletes likely would walk through these mazes on their way to bathe in preparation for competition. The experience of walking along the labyrinth pattern would have likely heightened the senses, as the participants would be acutely aware of their feet along the mosaic on the floor.[24]

Religion

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One of the earliest examples ofEarly Christian artin mosaic is the early 4th-century floor mosaic froma villa at Hinton St Mary,Dorset,England, which shows Christ with aChi-Rhobehind his head. The mosaic is now in theBritish Museum.[10]Orpheus mosaics,which often include many animals drawn by the god's playing, are very common; he was also used in Early Christian art as a symbol for Christ. Scenes ofDionysusare another common subject.

As the Roman period merged intoLate Antiquity,wall mosaics became the dominant form of art in grand churches, and thegold-groundstyle became usual.Italy has a high proportionof the surviving examples.

Emblems

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Progression within the mosaic technique developed the emblem, the "heart" of all mosaics. The word emblem is used to describe a small mosaic featuring a little genre scene or still life, characterised by particularly thin tesserae made separately and mounted in a central or important position in the main panel.

Recent finds

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2020

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In May 2020, the discovery of a well-preserved Roman mosaic floor dating to the 3rd century AD buried underneath a vineyard atNegraris reported after about a century of searching the site of a long-lost villa.[25][26][27]

2022

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In October 2022, a 1,600-year-old intact Roman mosaic measuring 20 x 6 metres was found under a building inAl-Rastan,Syria. Al-Rastan, a city nearHomsin Syria that was held by rebels until 2018. The building was being excavated by Syria's General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums, and was donated by the LebaneseNabu Museumto the Syrian state. At the time of excavation, it was unclear whether the building which housed the mosaic was a public bathhouse or something else. The mosaic showed mythical scenes including portraying the Roman sea godNeptuneand 40 of his mistresses, as well as Hercules slaying the Amazon queenHippolyta.[28][29]

Notable examples

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See also

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References

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  1. ^Bertoldi 2011.
  2. ^knutson, chris (2007)."Fishing with Ulysses and Bacchus: Two Roman Mosaics from Tunisia".Gastronomica.7(4): 7–9.doi:10.1525/gfc.2007.7.4.7.ISSN1529-3262.
  3. ^abcdeWitts 2005.
  4. ^Westgate (2000),pp. 255–256.
  5. ^Joyce (1979),p. 260.
  6. ^abDunbabin (1979),p. 265.
  7. ^Joyce (1979),pp. 259–260.
  8. ^abWestgate (2000),pp. 255–275.
  9. ^Joyce (1979),pp. 253–254, 257–258.
  10. ^ab"The Hinton St Mary Mosaic".British Museum. 2015.Retrieved19 February2015.
  11. ^Dunbabin 1999,p. 280.
  12. ^Packard 1980.
  13. ^Ricciardi et al. 2009.
  14. ^Donaldson 1965.
  15. ^Neri & Verità 2013.
  16. ^Oliver 2001.
  17. ^"Physical Aspects of the Polytheistic Roman Style".Tufts University. 2005.Retrieved13 March2015.
  18. ^Rawan, C. (11 March 2015)."Roman Mosaic Discoveries Made Through Time".Mozaico. Archived fromthe originalon 28 September 2015.Retrieved13 March2015.
  19. ^Dunbabin, Katherine M. D. (30 April 2014),"Mythology and Theatre in the Mosaics of the Graeco-Roman East",Using Images in Late Antiquity,Oxbow Books, pp. 227–252,doi:10.2307/j.ctvh1dwzx.16,retrieved11 May2022
  20. ^Knox, E. L. Skip."Alexander the Great - The Battle of Issus (334)".History of Western Civilization, Boise State University. Archived fromthe originalon 25 March 2015.Retrieved13 March2015.
  21. ^"Roman mosaic found in Libya".News24. 14 June 2005.Retrieved21 February2015.
  22. ^Varner, Eric R. (2001)."Portraits, Plots, and Politics:" Damnatio memoriae "and the Images of Imperial Women".Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome.46:41–93.doi:10.2307/4238780.ISSN0065-6801.JSTOR4238780.
  23. ^Phillips, Anthony (1992)."The Topology of Roman Mosaic Mazes".Leonardo.25(3/4): 321–329.doi:10.2307/1575858.ISSN0024-094X.JSTOR1575858.S2CID192939467.
  24. ^Molholt, Rebecca (September 2011)."Roman Labyrinth Mosaics and the Experience of Motion".The Art Bulletin.93(3): 287–303.doi:10.1080/00043079.2011.10786009.ISSN0004-3079.S2CID191483638.
  25. ^"Ancient Roman mosaic floor discovered under vines in Italy".The Guardian.27 May 2020.Retrieved8 September2020.
  26. ^"Roman mosaic floor found under Italian vineyard".BBC News.27 May 2020.Retrieved8 September2020.
  27. ^"Perfectly preserved ancient Roman mosaic floor unearthed beneath Italian vineyard".cbsnews.28 May 2020.Retrieved8 September2020.
  28. ^"'Rare' Roman mosaic found in Rastan, Syria ".BBC News.13 October 2022.Retrieved13 October2022.
  29. ^Aji, Albert (12 October 2022)."Syria digs up 'rare' Roman mosaic in former rebel stronghold".AP News.Retrieved13 October2022.

Sources

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