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Roscosmos

Coordinates:55°47′2″N37°37′50″E/ 55.78389°N 37.63056°E/55.78389; 37.63056
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This article is about the Russian space program starting from 1992. For the history of earlier Russian spaceflight, seeSoviet space program.

State Corporation for Space Activities "Roscosmos"
Государственная корпорация по космической деятельности «Роскосмос»
Headquarters inMoscow,Russia
Agency overview
AbbreviationRoscosmos
Formed25 February 1992;32 years ago(1992-02-25)
(as the Russian Space Agency)
Preceding agency
TypeSpace agency
JurisdictionGovernment of Russia
HeadquartersMoscow,Russia
55°47′2″N37°37′50″E/ 55.78389°N 37.63056°E/55.78389; 37.63056
Official languageRussian
AdministratorYury Borisov[1]
Primary spaceport
OwnerRussia
Employees170,500 (2020)
Annual budgetDecrease154 billion₽(2021)[2]
Websiteroscosmos.ru(archived)

TheState Corporation for Space Activities "Roscosmos"(Russian:Государственная корпорация по космической деятельности «Роскосмос»), commonly known simply asRoscosmos(Russian:Роскосмос), is astate corporationof theRussian Federationresponsible forspace flights,cosmonautics programs,andaerospaceresearch.[3]

Originating from theSoviet space programfounded in the 1950s, Roscosmos emerged following thedissolution of the Soviet Unionin 1991. It initially began as the Russian Space Agency,[note 1]which was established on 25 February 1992[4]and restructured in 1999 and 2004 as the Russian Aviation and Space Agency[note 2]and the Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos),[note 3]respectively.[4]In 2015, the Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) was merged with theUnited Rocket and Space Corporation,a government corporation, to re-nationalize thespace industry of Russia,leading to Roscosmos in its current form.[5][6][7]

Roscosmos is headquartered inMoscow,with its mainMission Control Centerin the nearby city ofKorolyov,and theYuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centerlocated inStar CityinMoscow Oblast.Its launch facilities includeBaikonur CosmodromeinKazakhstan,the world's first and largest spaceport, andVostochny Cosmodrome,which is being built in theRussian Far EastinAmur Oblast.Itsdirectorsince July 2022 isYury Borisov.[8]

As the main successor to the Soviet space program, Roscosmos' legacy includes the world's first satellite, first human spaceflight, and first space station (Salyut). Its current activities include the International Space Station, wherein it is a major partner. On 22 February 2019, Roscosmos announced the construction of its new headquarters inMoscow,theNational Space Centre.ItsAstronaut Corpsis the first in the world's history.

History[edit]

Main article:Soviet space program
Patch of the Russian Space Agency, 1991–2004
The Hall ofSpace Technologyin theTsiolkovsky State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics,Kaluga, Russia. The exhibition includes the models and replicas of the following Russian/Soviet inventions:
the firstsatellite,Sputnik 1(a ball under the ceiling);
the firstspacesuits(lower-left corner);
the firsthuman spaceflightmodule, theVostok 3KA(center);
the firstMolniya-type satellite (upper right corner);
the firstspace rover,Lunokhod 1(lower right);
the firstspace station,Salyut 1(left);
the firstmodular space station,Mir(upper left).

TheSoviet space programdid not have central executive agencies. Instead, its organizational architecture was multi-centered; it was the design bureaus and the council of designers that had the most say, not the political leadership. The creation of a central agency after the reorganization of theSoviet Unioninto the Russian Federation was therefore a new development. The Russian Space Agency was formed on 25 February 1992, by a decree of PresidentYeltsin.Yuri Koptev,who had previously worked with designing Mars landers atNPO Lavochkin,became the agency's first director.[9]

In the early years, the agency suffered from lack ofauthorityas the powerful design bureaus fought to protect their own spheres of operation and to survive. For example, the decision to keep Mir in operation beyond 1999 was not made by the agency, but by the private shareholder board of the Energia design bureau. Another example is that the decision to develop the newAngara rocketwas rather a function ofKhrunichev's ability to attract resources than a conscious long-term decision by the agency.[9]

Crisis years[edit]

The 1990s saw serious financial problems due to the decreased cash flow, which encouraged the space agency to improvise and seek other ways to keep space programs running. This resulted in the agency's leading role in commercial satellite launches andspace tourism.[citation needed]Scientific missions, such as interplanetary probes or astronomy missions during these years played a very small role, and although the agency had connections with the Russian aerospace forces, its budget was not part of Russia's defense budget; nevertheless, the agency managed to operate theMirspace station well past its planned lifespan, contributed to theInternational Space Station,and continued to flySoyuzandProgressmissions.

In 1994, Roscosmos renewed the lease on itsBaikonur cosmodromewith the government ofKazakhstan.[10]

2000: Start of ISS cooperation[edit]

On 31 October 2000, a Soyuz spacecraft lifted off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome at 10:53 a.m. Kazakhstan time. On board were Expedition OneCommander William M. (Bill) Shepherdof NASA and cosmonautsSergei KrikalevandYuri Gidzenkoof Roscosmos. The trio arrived at the International Space Station on 2 November, marking the start of an uninterrupted human presence on the orbiting laboratory.[11]

2004–2006: Improved situation[edit]

In March 2004, the agency's directorYuri Koptevwas replaced byAnatoly Perminov,who had previously served as the first commander of the Space Forces.[9][12]

TheRussian economyboomed throughout 2005 from high prices for exports, such as oil and gas, the outlook for future funding in 2006 appeared more favorable. This resulted in the Russian Duma approving a budget of 305 billionrubles(about US$11 billion) for the Space Agency from January 2006 until 2015, with overall space expenditures in Russia total about 425 billion rubles for the same time period.[13]The budget for 2006 was as high as 25 billion rubles (about US$900 million), which is a 33% increase from the 2005 budget. Under the current 10-year budget approved, the budget of the Space Agency shall increase 5–10% per year, providing the space agency with a constant influx of money. In addition to the budget, Roscosmos plans to have over 130 billion rubles flowing into its budget by other means, such as industry investments and commercial space launches. It is around the time US-basedThe Planetary Societyentered a partnership with Roscosmos.

2006–2012[edit]

CosmonautAnton Shkaplerovon EVA (February 2012)

The federal space budget for the year 2009 was left unchanged despite the global economic crisis, standing at about 82 billion rubles ($2.4 billion).[citation needed]In 2011, the government spent 115 billion rubles ($3.8 bln) in the national space programs.[citation needed]

The proposed project core budget for 2013 to be around 128.3 billion rubles. The budget for the whole space program is 169.8 billion rubles. ($5.6 bln). By 2015, the amount of the budget can be increased to 199.2 billion rubles.[12]

Priorities of the Russian space program include the newAngara rocket familyand development of new communications, navigation and remote Earth sensing spacecraft.[citation needed]TheGLONASSglobal navigation satellite system has for many years been one of the top priorities and has been given its own budget line in the federal space budget. In 2007, GLONASS received 9.9 billion rubles ($360 million), and under the terms of adirectivesigned byPrime MinisterVladimir Putin in 2008, an additional $2.6 billion will be allocated for its development.[citation needed]

Space station funding issues

Due toInternational Space Stationinvolvements, up to 50% of Russia's space budget is spent on the crewed space program as of 2009.Some observers have pointed out that this has a detrimental effect on other aspects of space exploration, and that the other space powers spend much lesser proportions of their overall budgets on maintaining human presence in orbit.[15]

Despite the considerably improved budget,[when?]attention of legislative and executive authorities, positive media coverage and broad support among the population, the Russian space program continues to face several problems.[16]Wages in the space industry are low; the average age of employees is high (46 years in 2007),[16]and much of the equipment is obsolete.[citation needed]On the positive side, many companies in the sector have been able to profit from contracts and partnerships with foreign companies; several new systems such as new rocket upper stages have been developed in recent years; investments have been made to production lines, and companies have started to pay more attention to educating a new generation of engineers and technicians.[9]

2011 New director

On 29 April 2011, Perminov was replaced withVladimir Popovkinas the director of Roscosmos. The 65-year-old Perminov was over the legal age for state officials, and had received some criticism after a failedGLONASSlaunch in December 2010. Popovkin is a former commander of theRussian Space Forcesand First Deputy Defense Minister of Russia.[17]

2013–2016: Reorganization of the Russian space sector[edit]

2022 alternate logo of Roscosmos

As a result of a series of reliability problems, and proximate to the failure of a July 2013Proton Mlaunch, a major reorganization of the Russian space industry was undertaken. TheUnited Rocket and Space Corporationwas formed as ajoint-stockcorporation by thegovernmentin August 2013 to consolidate the Russianspacesector. Deputy Prime MinisterDmitry Rogozinsaid "the failure-prone space sector is so troubled that it needs state supervision to overcome its problems."[18] Three days following the Proton M launch failure, the Russian government had announced that "extremely harsh measures" would be taken "and spell the end of the [Russian] space industry as we know it."[19] Information indicated then that the government intended to reorganize in such a way as to "preserve and enhance the Roscosmos space agency."[18]

More detailed plans released in October 2013 called for are-nationalizationof the "troubled space industry", with sweeping reforms including a new "unified command structure and reducing redundant capabilities, acts that could lead to tens of thousands of layoffs."[20]According to Rogozin, the Russian space sector employs about 250,000 people, while the United States needs only 70,000 to achieve similar results. He said: "Russian space productivity is eight times lower than America's, with companies duplicating one another's work and operating at about 40 percent efficiency."[20]

Under the 2013 plan, Roscosmos was to "act as a federal executive body and contracting authority for programs to be implemented by the industry."[18]

In 2016, thestate agencywas dissolved and the Roscosmos brand moved to thestate corporation,which had been created in 2013 as theUnited Rocket and Space Corporation,with the specific mission to renationalize the Russian space sector.[21]

2017–2021[edit]

In 2018,RussianPresident Vladimir Putin said "it 'is necessary to drastically improve the quality and reliability of space and launch vehicles'... to preserve Russia's increasingly threatened leadership in space."[22]In November 2018Alexei Kudrin,head of Russian financial audit agency, named Roscosmos as the public enterprise with "the highest losses" due to "irrational spending" and outrighttheftandcorruption,[23]under the leadership ofIgor Komarovwho was terminated in May 2018 in favour of Rogozin.

In 2020 Roscosmos under Rogozin reneged on its participation inLunar Gateway,aNASA-led project that will see a lunar orbiter spaceport for the moon. It had previously signed an agreement in September 2017 with the Americans.[24][25]

In March 2021, Roscosmos signed a memorandum of cooperative construction of a lunar base called theInternational Lunar Research Stationwith theChina National Space Administration.”[26]

In April 2021, Roscosmos announced that it will be departing the ISS program after 2024. In its place, it was announced that a new space station (Russian Orbital Service Station) will be constructed starting in 2025.[27]

In June 2021 Rogozin complained that sanctions imposed in the wake of the2014 Russian annexation of Crimeawere hurting Roscosmos.[28]

In September 2021, Roscosmos announced its revenue and net income, losing 25 billion roubles and 1 billion roubles respectively in 2020, due to the reduction of profit from foreign contracts, an increase in show-up pay, stay-at-home days and personnel health expenses due to theCOVID-19pandemic. According to Roscosmos, these losses would also impact the corporation for the next two years.[29]In October, Roscosmos placed the tests of rocket engines in the engineering bureau of chemical automatics inVoronezhon hold for one month to deliver 33 tons of oxygen to local medical centers, as part of aid for theCOVID-19 pandemic.[30]

In December 2021, theGovernment of Russiaconfirmed determination of the agreement with Roscosmos for development of next-gen space systems, the document been provided for the officials in July 2020.[31]

2022-present[edit]

Since theRussian invasion of Ukraineon 24 February 2022 Roscosmos launched 9 rockets in 2022 and 7 in the first half of 2023.

In early March 2022 Roscosmos under Rogozin suspended its participation in the ESA'sKourou,French Guiana spaceport, in a tit-for-tat move over the sanctions imposed in the wake of the Russian invasion.[32]As well Rogozin said he would suspend delivery of theRD-181engine which is used for theNorthrop GrummanAntares-Cygnusspace cargo delivery system.[32]

In late March 2022 theEuropean Space Agency(ESA) suspended cooperation with Roscosmos in theExoMars rovermission because of the Russian invasion, and British satellite ventureOneWebsigned contracts withISROandSpaceXto launch its satellites after friction had developed "with Moscow" and Roscosmos, its previous orbit service provider.[33]The friction had developed over Rogozin's command that OneWeb needed to ditch its venture capital investment from the UK government.[34][35]

On 2 May 2022 Rogozin announced that Roscosmos would terminate its involvement in theISS,with 12 months' notice as stipulated in the international contract that governs the satellite.[36]This followed the 3 March 2022 announcement that Roscosmos would cease cooperation on scientific experiments at the spacelab,[34]and the 25 March 2022 announcement by Rogozin that "cooperation with Europe is now impossible after sanctions over the Ukraine war."[37]

Rogozin was removed from his job as CEO in July 2022,[38]and replaced withYury Borisov,who seemed to stabilize the relationship with theISSpartners especially NASA. One of the complaints against Rogozin were his risky words about termination of the ISS agreement over the war in Ukraine,[10]which he broadcast as early as April 2022.[39][33]At one point in time NASA had bought 71 return trips onSoyuzfor almost $4 billion over six years.[10]

The global space-launch services market was valued at $12.4 billion in 2021 and was forecast to reach $38 billion by decade's end. An American academic wrote that in the wake of the Russian invasion Roscosmos' share of that market was likely to decline in favour of new entrants such as Japan and India, as well as commercial entrants likeSpaceXandBlue Origin.[40]

In June 2023 Roscosmos held in a campaign to recruit volunteers for theUran Battalion,a militia for theRussian invasion of Ukraine.[38]

In October 2023 Borisov announced the need for 150 billion rubles in the next three years in order to build the Russian space station. At completion in 2032 it will have absorbed 609 billion rubles.[41]

In February 2024 at the 2023AGMBorisov announced the loss of 180 billion rubles in export revenues, chiefly engine sales and launch services, because of the Western hostility to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[42]Roscosmos had lost 90% of its launch service contracts since the advent of the war.[43][44]

Future plans[edit]

From 2024 on Roscosmos headquarters will be located in the newNational Space Centerin the Moscow district ofFili.[45]

Current programs[edit]

ISS involvement[edit]

See also:Russian Orbital Segment
TheZaryamodule was the first module of the ISS, launched in 1998.

Roscosmos is one of the partners in theInternational Space Station program.It contributed the core space modulesZaryaandZvezda,which were both launched byProton rocketsand later were joined by NASA'sUnity Module.TheRassvet modulewas launched aboardSpace ShuttleAtlantis[46]and is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft. TheNauka moduleis the final planned component of the ISS, launch was postponed several times from the initially planned date in 2007,[47]but attached to ISS in July 2021.[48]

Roscosmos is responsible for expedition crew launches bySoyuz-TMAspacecraft and resupplies the space station withProgressspace transporters. After the initial ISS contract with NASA expired, Roscosmos and NASA, with the approval of the US government, entered into a space contract running until 2011, according to which Roscosmos will sell NASA spots on Soyuz spacecraft for approximately $21 million per person each way, thus $42 million to and back from the ISS per person, as well as provide Progress transport flights, at $50 million per Progress as outlined in theExploration Systems Architecture Study.[49]Roscosmos announced that according to this arrangement, crewedSoyuzflights would be doubled to 4 per year andProgressflights doubled to 8 per year beginning in 2008.[needs update][citation needed]

Roscosmos has providedspace tourismfor fare-paying passengers to ISS through theSpace Adventurescompany. As of 2009, six space tourists have contracted with Roscosmos and have flown into space, each for an estimated fee of at least $20 million (USD).[needs update]

Continued international collaboration in ISS missions has been thrown into doubt by the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraineand related sanctions on Russia,[50]although resupply missions continued in 2022 and 2023.

Scientific programs[edit]

See also:Scientific research on the International Space Station

Roscosmos operates a number of programs for Earth science, communication, and scientific research on the International Space Station. Roscosmos operates one science satellite (Spektr-RG) and no interplanetary probes, as of 2024. Future projects include theSoyuzsuccessor, theProspective Piloted Transport System,scientific robotic missions to one of theMarsmoons as well as an increase in Lunar orbit research satellites to one (Luna-Glob).

  • Luna-GlobMoon orbiters and landers,Luna 25launched in 2023 crashed onto the moon.[51][52]
  • Venera-DVenus lander, planned for 2029
  • Fobos-GruntMars mission, lost in low Earth orbit in 2011 and crashed back to earth in 2012[53]
  • Mars 96Mars mission, lost in low Earth orbit in 1996

Rockets[edit]

Roscosmos uses a family of several launch rockets, the most famous of them being theR-7,commonly known as theSoyuzrocket that is capable of launching about 7.5 tons intolow Earth orbit(LEO). TheProton rocket(or UR-500K) has a lift capacity of over 20 tons to LEO. Smaller rockets includeRokotand other Stations.

Currently rocket development encompasses both a new rocket system,Angara,as well as enhancements of the Soyuz rocket,Soyuz-2andSoyuz-2-3.Two modifications of the Soyuz, the Soyuz-2.1a and Soyuz-2.1b have already been successfully tested, enhancing the launch capacity to 8.5 tons to LEO.

Operational[edit]

Vehicle Manufacturer Payload mass (kg) Maiden flight Total launches Notes
LEO GTO Other
Angara 1.2 Khrunichev 3.500 2.400 toSSO 9 July 2014 3
Angara A5 Khrunichev 24.000 7.500 withKVTK

5.400 withBriz-M

23 December 2014 3
Proton-M Khrunichev 23.000 6.920 3.250 toGSO 7 April 2001 115 To be replaced by the new Angara
Soyuz-2.1a Progress Rocket Space Centre 7.020 fromBaikonur

7.800 fromKourou

2.810 from Kourou 4.230 to SSO from Kourou 8 November 2004 71 Capable of human spaceflight.

Launched from Kourou is called Soyuz ST-A:

greater load due to lower latitude

Soyuz-2.1b Progress Rocket Space Centre 8.200 from Baikonur

9.000 from Kourou

2.400 from Baikonur

3.250 from Kourou

4.900 to SSO from Kourou

2.720 toTLIfrom Kourou

27 December 2006 83 Capable of human spaceflight.

Launched from Kourou is called Soyuz ST-B

Soyuz-2.1v Progress Rocket Space Centre 2.800 28 December 2013 10

Under development[edit]

Vehicle Manufacturer Payload mass (kg) Planned maiden flight Notes
LEO GTO Other
Amur KB Khimavtomatika 10.500 reusable

12.500 expendable

2026 First reusable methalox Russian rocket
Irtysh/Soyuz-5 Progress Rocket Space Centre 18.000 crewed

15.500 uncrewed

5000 2025 Base of the SHLLV Yenisei
Yenisei RSC Energia

Progress Rocket Space Centre

103.000 26000 27000 toTLI 2028 Firstsuper-heavy launch vehiclebeing developed by the Russian space industry since thefall of the USSR
Don RSC Energia

Progress Rocket Space Centre

140.000 29500 33000 to TLI 2032–2035 Based on the Yenisei launch vehicle, the Don launch vehicle (RN STK-2) is being developed by adding another stage

New piloted spacecraft[edit]

One of Roscosmos's projects that was widely covered in the media in 2005 wasKliper,a smalllifting bodyreusable spacecraft. While Roscosmos had reached out toESAandJAXAas well as others to share development costs of the project, it also stated that it will go forward with the project even without the support of other space agencies. This statement was backed by the approval of its budget for 2006–2015, which includes the necessary funding ofKliper.However, the Kliper program was cancelled in July 2006,[54]and has been replaced by the newOrelproject. As of 2023,no crafts were launched.

Space systems[edit]

TheGalenki RT-70 radio telescope.It is among the largest single dish radio telescopes in the world.

"Resurs-P"[55]is a series of Russian commercialEarth observation satellitescapable of acquiring high-resolution imagery (resolution up to 1.0 m). The spacecraft is operated by Roscosmos as a replacement of theResurs-DK No.1satellite.

Create HEO space system "Arctic" to address the hydrological and meteorological problems in the Arctic region and the northern areas of the Earth, with the help of two spacecraft "Arktika-M" and in the future within the system can create a communications satellite "Arktika-MS" and radar satellites "Arktika-R."[56]

The launch of two satellites "Obzor-R" (Review-R) Remote Sensing of the Earth, with the AESA radar and four spacecraft "Obzor-O" (Review-O) to capture the Earth's surface in normal and infrared light in a broad swath of 80 km with a resolution of 10 meters. The first two satellites of the projects planned for launch in 2015.[citation needed]

Gonets:Civilian low Earth orbit communication satellite system. On 2016, the system consists of 13 satellites (12 Gonets-M and 1 Gonets-D1).[57]

Suffa Space Observatory[edit]

In 2018, Russia agreed to help build the Suffa observatory in Uzbekistan. The observatory was started in 1991, but stalled after the fall of the USSR.[58]

Gecko mating experiment[edit]

On 19 July 2014, Roscosmos launched theFoton-M4 satellitecontaining, among other animals and plants, a group of fivegeckos.[59][60]The five geckos, four females and one male, were used as a part of theGecko-F4research program aimed at measuring the effects of weightlessness on the lizards' ability to procreate and develop in the harsh environment. However, soon after the spacecraft exited the atmosphere, mission control lost contact with the vessel which led to an attempt to reestablish communication that was only achieved later in the mission. When the satellite returned to Earth after its planned two-month mission had been cut short to 44 days, thespace agencyresearchers reported that all the geckos had perished during the flight.

The exact cause that led to the deaths of the geckos was declared unknown by the scientific team in charge of the project. Reports from theInstitute of Medical and Biological Problemsin Russia have indicated that the lizards had been dead for at least a week prior to their return to Earth. A number of those connected to the mission have theorized that a failure in the vessel's heating system may have caused the cold blooded reptiles to freeze to death.

Included in the mission were a number of fruit flies, plants, and mushrooms which all survived the mission.[61]

Launch control[edit]

Main article:Russian Space Forces

TheRussian Space Forcesis the military counterpart of the Roscosmos with similar mission objectives as of theUnited States Space Force.The Russian branch was formed after the merging of the space components of theRussian Air Forceand theAerospace Defense Forces(VKO) in 2015. The Space Forces controls Russia'sPlesetsk Cosmodromelaunch facility. Roscosmos and the Space Forces share control of theBaikonur Cosmodrome,where Roscosmos reimburses the VKO for the wages of many of the flight controllers during civilian launches. Roscosmos and the Space Forces also share control of theYuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center.It has been announced that Russia is to build another spaceport inTsiolkovsky, Amur Oblast.[62]TheVostochny Cosmodromewas scheduled to be finished by 2018 having launched its first rocket in 2016.

Subsidiaries[edit]

As of 2017, Roscosmos had the following subsidiaries:[63]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Russian:Российское космическое агентство,Rossiyskoye kosmicheskoye agentstvo,or RKA (Russian:РКА).
  2. ^Russian:Российское авиационно-космическое агентство,Rossiyskoye aviatsionno-kosmicheskoye agentstvo,commonly known asRosaviakosmos(Russian:Росавиакосмос), established on 25 May 1999.
  3. ^Russian:Федеральное космическое агентство(Роскосмос),Federalnoye kosmicheskoye agentstvo (Roskosmos).

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