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Russian battleshipPotemkin

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Panteleimonat sea, 1906
Class overview
OperatorsImperial Russian Navy
Preceded byPeresvetclass
Succeeded byRetvizan
In commission1903–1918
Completed1
Scrapped1
History
Russian Empire
Name
  • 1904:Kniaz Potemkin Tavricheskiy
  • 1905:Panteleimon
  • 1917:Potemkin-Tavricheskiy
  • 1917:Borets za Svobodu
Namesake
BuilderNikolaev Admiralty Shipyard
Laid down10 October 1898[Note 1]
Launched9 October 1900
DecommissionedMarch 1918
In serviceEarly 1905
Out of service19 April 1919
Stricken21 November 1925
FateScrapped,1923
General characteristics
TypePre-dreadnought battleship
Displacement12,900long tons(13,107t) (actual)
Length378 ft 6 in (115.4 m)
Beam73 ft (22.3 m)
Draught27 ft (8.2 m)
Installed power
Propulsion2 shafts, 2triple-expansion steam engines
Speed16knots(30 km/h; 18 mph)
Range3,200nautical miles(5,900 km; 3,700 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph)
Complement26 officers, 705enlisted men
Armament
Armour

TheRussian battleshipPotemkin(Russian:Князь Потёмкин Таврический,romanized:Kniaz Potyomkin Tavricheskiy,"Prince Potemkin ofTaurida") was apre-dreadnought battleshipbuilt for theImperial Russian Navy'sBlack Sea Fleet.She became famous during theRevolution of 1905,when her crew mutinied against their officers. This event later formed the basis forSergei Eisenstein's 1925 silent filmBattleship Potemkin.

After the mutineers sought asylum inConstanța,Romania,and after the Russians recovered the ship, her name was changed toPanteleimon.She accidentally sank a Russian submarine in 1909 and was badly damaged when sheran agroundin 1911. DuringWorld War I,Panteleimonparticipated in theBattle of Cape Sarychin late 1914. She covered several bombardments of theBosphorusfortifications in early 1915, including one where the ship wasattackedby theOttomanbattlecruiserYavuz Sultan Selim–Panteleimonand the other Russian pre-dreadnoughts present drove her off before she could inflict any serious damage. The ship was relegated to secondary roles after Russia's firstdreadnought battleshipentered service in late 1915. She was by then obsolete and was reduced toreservein 1918 inSevastopol.

Panteleimonwas captured when theGermanstook Sevastopol in May 1918 and was handed over to theAlliesafter theArmisticein November 1918. Her engines were destroyed by the British in 1919 when they withdrew from Sevastopol to prevent the advancingBolsheviksfrom using them against theWhite Russians.The ship was abandoned when the Whites evacuated theCrimeain 1920 and was finallyscrappedby theSovietsin 1923.

Background and description[edit]

Planning began in 1895 for a new battleship that would utilise aslipwayslated to become available at theNikolayev Admiralty Shipyardin 1896. The Naval Staff and the commander of the Black Sea Fleet,Vice AdmiralK. P. Pilkin, agreed on a copy of thePeresvet-classbattleship design, but they were over-ruled byGeneral AdmiralGrand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich.The General Admiral decided that the long range and less powerful 10-inch (254 mm) guns of thePeresvetclass were inappropriate for the narrow confines of theBlack Sea,and ordered the design of an improved version of the battleshipTri Sviatiteliainstead. The improvements included a higherforecastleto improve the ship'sseakeepingqualities,Krupp cemented armourandBelleville boilers.The design process was complicated by numerous changes demanded by various departments of the Naval Technical Committee. The ship's design was finally approved on 12 June 1897, although design changes continued to be made that slowed the ship's construction.[1]

Potemkinwas 371 feet 5 inches (113.2 m)long at the waterlineand 378 feet 6 inches (115.4 m) longoverall.She had abeamof 73 feet (22.3 m) and a maximumdraughtof 27 feet (8.2 m). The battleship displaced 12,900long tons(13,100t), 420 long tons (430 t) more than her designed displacement of 12,480 long tons (12,680 t). The ship's crew consisted of 26 officers and 705 enlisted men.[2]

Potemkinhad a pair of three-cylindervertical triple-expansion steam engines,each of which drove onepropeller,that had a total designed output of 10,600indicated horsepower(7,900kW). Twenty-twoBelleville boilersprovided steam to the engines at a pressure of 15atm(1,520kPa;220psi). The 8 boilers in the forward boiler room were oil-fired and the remaining 14 were coal-fired. During her sea trials on 31 October 1903, she reached a top speed of 16.5knots(30.6 km/h; 19.0 mph). Leaking oil caused a serious fire on 2 January 1904 that caused the navy to convert her boilers to coal firing at a cost of 20,000rubles.The ship carried a maximum of 1,100 long tons (1,100 t) of coal at full load that provided a range of 3,200nautical miles(5,900 km; 3,700 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph).[3]

Armament[edit]

Panteleimonat anchor, circa 1906–1910

The battleship'smain batteryconsisted of four 40-calibre12-inch (305 mm) guns mounted in twin-gun turretsfore and aft of thesuperstructure.The electrically operated turrets were derived from the design of those used by thePetropavlovsk-classbattleships. These guns had a maximum elevation of +15° and their rate of fire was very slow, only one round every four minutes during gunnery trials.[4]They fired a 745-pound (337.7 kg) shell at amuzzle velocityof 2,792 ft/s (851 m/s). At an elevation of +10° the guns had a range of 13,000 yards (12,000 m).[5]Potemkincarried 60 rounds for each gun.[4]

The sixteen 45-calibre,six-inch (152 mm)CanetPattern 1891quick-firing (QF) gunswere mounted incasemates.Twelve of these were placed on the sides of the hull and the other four were positioned at the corners of the superstructure.[4]They fired shells that weighed 91.4 lb (41.46 kg) with a muzzle velocity of 2,600 ft/s (792 m/s). They had a maximum range of 12,602 yards (11,523 m) when fired at an elevation of +20°.[6]The ship stowed 160 rounds per gun.[2]

Smaller guns were carried for close-range defence againsttorpedo boats.These included fourteen 50-calibre Canet QF75-millimetre (3 in)guns: four in hullembrasuresand the remaining ten mounted on the superstructure.Potemkincarried 300 shells for each gun.[4]They fired an 11-pound (4.9 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2,700 ft/s (820 m/s) to a maximum range of 7,005 yards (6,405 m).[7]She also mounted six 47-millimetre (1.9 in)Hotchkiss guns.Four of these were mounted in thefighting topand two on the superstructure.[4]They fired a 2.2-pound (1 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1,400 ft/s (430 m/s).[8]

Potemkinhad five underwater 15-inch (381 mm)torpedo tubes:one in the bow and two on eachbroadside.She carried three torpedoes for each tube.[4]The model of torpedo in use changed over time; the first torpedo that the ship would have been equipped with was the M1904. It had awarheadweight of 150 pounds (70 kg) and a speed of 33 knots (61 km/h; 38 mph) with a maximum range of 870 yards (800 m).[9]

In 1907,telescopic sightswere fitted for the 12-inch and 6-inch guns. In that or the following year 2.5-metre (8 ft 2 in)rangefinderswere installed. The bow torpedo tube was removed in 1910–1911, as was the fighting top. The following year the main-gun turret machinery was upgraded and the guns were modified to improve their rate of fire to one round every 40 seconds.[10]

Two 57-millimetre (2.2 in)anti-aircraft (AA) gunswere mounted onPotemkin's superstructure on 3–6 June 1915; they were supplemented by two 75 mm AA guns, one on top of each turret, probably during 1916. In February 1916, the ship's four remaining torpedo tubes were removed. At some point during World War I, her 75 mm guns were also removed.[11]

Protection[edit]

The maximum thickness of the Krupp cemented armourwaterline beltwas nine inches (229 mm) which reduced to eight inches (203 mm) abreast themagazines.It covered 237 feet (72.2 m) of the ship's length and two-inch (51 mm) plates protected the waterline to the ends of the ship. The belt was 7 feet 6 inches (2.3 m) high, of which 5 feet (2 m) was below thewaterline,and tapered down to a thickness of five inches (127 mm) at its bottom edge. The main part of the belt terminated in seven-inch (178 mm) transversebulkheads.[4]

Above the belt was the upperstrakeof six-inch armour that was 156 feet (47.5 m) long and closed off by six-inch transverse bulkheads fore and aft. The upper casemate protected the six-inch guns and was five inches thick on all sides. The sides of the turrets were ten inches (254 mm) thick and they had a two-inch roof. Theconning tower's sides were nine inches thick. The nickel-steel armour deck was two inches thick on the flat amidships, but 2.5 inches (64 mm) thick on the slope connecting it to the armour belt. Fore and aft of thearmoured citadel,the deck was three inches (76 mm) to the bow and stern.[4]In 1910–1911, additional one-inch (25 mm) armour plates were added fore and aft; their exact location is unknown, but they were probably used to extend the height of the two-inch armour strake at the ends of the ship.[10]

Construction and career[edit]

Construction ofPotemkinbegan on 27 December 1897 and she waslaid downat the Nikolayev Admiralty Shipyard on 10 October 1898. She was named in honour of PrinceGrigory Potemkin,a Russian soldier and statesman.[12]The ship waslaunchedon 9 October 1900 and transferred to Sevastopol forfitting outon 4 July 1902. She begansea trialsin September 1903 and these continued, off and on, until early 1905 when her gun turrets were completed.[13]

Mutiny[edit]

Ippolit Giliarovsky
Evgeny Golikov

During theRusso-Japanese Warof 1904–1905, many of the Black Sea Fleet's most experienced officers and enlisted men were transferred to the ships in the Pacific to replace losses. This left the fleet with primarily raw recruits and less capable officers. With the news of the disastrousBattle of Tsushimain May 1905, morale dropped to an all-time low, and any minor incident could be enough to spark a major catastrophe.[14]Taking advantage of the situation, plus the disruption caused by theongoing riots and uprisings,the Central Committee of the Social Democratic Organisation of the Black Sea Fleet, called "Tsentralka", had started preparations for a simultaneousmutinyon all of the ships of the fleet, although the timing had not been decided.[15]

On 27 June 1905,Potemkinwas at gunnery practice nearTendra Spitoff the Ukrainian coast when many enlisted men refused to eat theborschtmade from rotten meat infested withmaggots.Brought aboard the warship the previous day from shore suppliers, the carcasses had been passed as suitable for eating by the ship's senior surgeon Dr Sergei Smirnov after several perfunctory examinations.[16]

The uprising was triggered whenIppolit Giliarovsky,the ship's second in command, allegedly threatened to shoot crew members for their refusal. He summoned the ship's marine guards as well as atarpaulinto protect the ship's deck from any blood in an attempt to intimidate the crew. Giliarovsky was killed after he mortally woundedGrigory Vakulinchuk,one of the mutiny's leaders. The mutineers killed seven of thePotemkin's eighteen officers, includingCaptainEvgeny Golikov (ru), Executive Officer Giliarovsky and Surgeon Smirnov; and captured the accompanying torpedo boatIsmail(No. 267). They organised a ship's committee of 25 sailors, led byAfanasi Matushenko,to run the battleship.[17]

Matushenko,the leader of the mutiny, is seen to the left of centre. Photo taken July 1905, after arrival atConstanța– officer at left is in Romanian uniform.

The committee decided to head forOdessaflying ared flagand arrived there later that day at 22:00. Ageneral strikehad been called in the city and there was some rioting as police tried to quell the strikers. The following day the mutineers refused to supply alanding partyto help the striking revolutionaries take over the city, preferring instead to await the arrival of the other battleships of the Black Sea Fleet. Later that day the mutineers aboardPotemkincaptured a military transport,Vekha,that had arrived in the city. The riots continued as much of the port area was destroyed by fire. On the afternoon of 29 June, Vakulinchuk's funeral turned into a political demonstration and the army attempted to ambush the sailors who participated in the funeral. In retaliation,Potemkinfired two six-inch shells at the theatre where a high-level military meeting was scheduled to take place, but missed.[18]

Vice AdmiralGrigoriy Chukhnin,commander of the Black Sea Fleet, issued an order to send twosquadronsto Odessa either to forcePotemkin's crew to give up or sink the battleship.Potemkinsortiedon the morning of 30 June to meet the three battleshipsTri Sviatitelia,Dvenadsat Apostolov,andGeorgii Pobedonosetsof the first squadron, but the loyal ships turned away. The second squadron arrived with the battleshipsRostislavandSinoplater that morning, and Vice AdmiralAleksander Krieger,acting commander of the Black Sea Fleet, ordered the ships to proceed to Odessa.Potemkinsortied again and sailed through the combined squadrons as Krieger failed to order his ships to fire. Captain Kolands ofDvenadsat Apostolovattempted toramPotemkinand then detonate his ship's magazines, but he was thwarted by members of his crew. Krieger ordered his ships to fall back, but the crew ofGeorgii Pobedonosetsmutinied and joinedPotemkin.[19]

The following morning, loyalist members ofGeorgii Pobedonosetsretook control of the ship and ran her aground in Odessa harbour.[20]The crew ofPotemkin,together withIsmail,decided to sail for Constanța later that day where they could restock food, water and coal. The Romanians refused to provide the supplies, backed by the presence of their smallprotected cruiserElisabeta,so the ship's committee decided to sail for the small, barely defended port ofTheodosiain theCrimeawhere they hoped to resupply. The ship arrived on the morning of 5 July, but the city's governor refused to give them anything other than food. The mutineers attempted to seize several barges of coal the following morning, but the port's garrison ambushed them and killed or captured 22 of the 30 sailors involved. They decided to return to Constanța that afternoon.[21]

Potemkinat anchor with the Romanian flag hoisted on her mast, Constanța, July 1905

Potemkinreached its destination at 23:00 on 7 July and the Romanians agreed to giveasylumto the crew if they would disarm themselves and surrender the battleship.Ismail's crew decided the following morning to return to Sevastopol and turn themselves in, butPotemkin's crew voted to accept the terms. Captain Nicolae Negru, commander of the port, came aboard at noon and hoisted the Romanian flag and then allowed the ship to enter the inner harbor. Before the crew disembarked, Matushenko ordered thatPotemkin'sKingston valvesbe opened so she would sink to the bottom.[22]

Later service[edit]

WhenRear AdmiralPisarevsky reached Constanța on the morning of 9 July, he foundPotemkinhalf sunk in the harbour and flying the Romanian flag. After several hours of negotiations with the Romanian government, the battleship was handed over to the Russians. Later that day theRussian Navy Ensignwas raised over the battleship.[23]She was then easily refloated by the navy, but the salt water had damaged her engines and boilers. The ship left Constanța on 10 July, having to be towed back to Sevastopol, where she arrived on 14 July.[24]The ship was renamedPanteleimon(Russian:Пантелеймон), afterSaint Pantaleon,[25]on 12 October 1905. Some members ofPanteleimon's crew joined a mutiny that began aboard the protected cruiserOchakov(ru) in November, but it was easily suppressed as both ships had been earlier disarmed.[24]

Panteleimonreceived an experimental underwater communications set[26]in February 1909. Later that year, she accidentally rammed and sank the submarineKambala(ru) at night on 11 June [according to Russian sources,Kambalasank in a collision withRostislav,not withPanteleimon,[24]killing the 16 crewmen aboard the submarine].[27]

While returning from a port visit to Constanța in 1911,Panteleimonran aground on 2 October. It took several days to refloat her and make temporary repairs, and the full extent of the damage to its bottom was not fully realised for several more months. The ship participated in training and gunnery exercises for the rest of the year; a special watch was kept to ensure that no damaged seams were opened during firing. Permanent repairs, which involved replacing its boiler foundations, plating, and a large number of its hull frames, lasted from 10 January to 25 April 1912. The navy took advantage of these repairs tooverhaulPanteleimon's engines and boilers.[28]

World War I[edit]

Panteleimon,flagshipof the 1st Battleship Brigade, accompanied by the pre-dreadnoughtsEvstafi,Ioann Zlatoust,andTri Sviatitelia,covered the pre-dreadnoughtRostislavwhile she bombardedTrebizondon the morning of 17 November 1914. They were intercepted the following day by the Ottoman battlecruiserYavuz Sultan Selim(the ex-GermanSMSGoeben) and thelight cruiserMidilli(the ex-GermanSMSBreslau) on their return voyage to Sevastopol in what came to be known as theBattle of Cape Sarych.Despite the noon hour the conditions were foggy; thecapital shipsinitially did not spot each other. Although several other ships opened fire, hitting theYavuz Sultan Selimonce,Panteleimonheld her fire because her turrets could not see the Ottoman ships before they disengaged.[29]

Tri SviatiteliaandRostislavbombarded Ottoman fortifications at the mouth of theBosphoruson 18 March 1915, the first of several attacks intended to divert troops and attention from the ongoingGallipoli campaign,but fired only 105 rounds before sailing north to rejoinPanteleimon,Ioann ZlatoustandEvstafi.[30]Tri SviatiteliaandRostislavwere intended to repeat the bombardment the following day, but were hindered by heavy fog.[31]On 3 April,Yavuz Sultan Selimand several ships of the Ottoman navy raided the Russian port at Odessa; the Russian battleship squadron sortied to intercept them. The battleships pursuedYavuz Sultan Selimthe entire day, but were unable to close to effective gunnery range and were forced to break off the chase.[32]On 25 AprilTri SviatiteliaandRostislavrepeated their bombardment of the Bosphorus forts.Tri Sviatitelia,RostislavandPanteleimonbombarded the forts again on 2 and 3 May. This time a total of 337 main-gun rounds were fired in addition to 528 six-inch shells between the three battleships.[30]

On 9 May 1915,Tri SviatiteliaandPanteleimonreturned to bombard the Bosphorus forts, covered by the remaining pre-dreadnoughts.Yavuz Sultan Selimintercepted the three ships of the covering force, although no damage was inflicted by either side.Tri SviatiteliaandPantelimonrejoined their consorts and the latter scored two hits onYavuz Sultan Selimbefore it broke off the action. The Russian ships pursued it for six hours before giving up the chase. On 1 August, all of the Black Sea pre-dreadnoughts were transferred to the 2nd Battleship Brigade, after the more powerful dreadnoughtImperatritsa Mariyaentered service. On 1 October the new dreadnought provided cover whileIoann ZlatoustandPantelimonbombardedZonguldakandEvstafishelled the nearby town of Kozlu.[11]The ship bombardedVarnatwice in October 1915; during the second bombardment on 27 October, she entered Varna Bay and was unsuccessfully attacked by two German submarines stationed there.[33]

Panteleimonsupported Russian troops in early 1916 as they captured Trebizond[24]and participated in an anti-shipping sweep off the north-westernAnatoliancoast in January 1917 that destroyed 39 Ottoman sailing ships.[34]On 13 April 1917, after theFebruary Revolution,the ship was renamedPotemkin-Tavricheskiy(Потёмкин-Таврический), and then on 11 May was renamedBorets za svobodu(Борец за свободу–Freedom Fighter).[24]

Reserve and decommissioning[edit]

Borets za Svoboduwas placed in reserve in March 1918 and was captured by the Germans at Sevastopol in May. They handed the ship over to the Allies in December 1918 after the Armistice. The British wrecked her engines on 19 April 1919 when they left the Crimea to prevent the advancing Bolsheviks from using her against the White Russians. Thoroughly obsolete by this time, the battleship was captured by both sides during theRussian Civil War,but was abandoned by the White Russians when they evacuated the Crimea in November 1920.Borets za Svoboduwas scrapped beginning in 1923, although she was not stricken from theNavy Listuntil 21 November 1925.[24]

Legacy[edit]

Poster forSergei Eisenstein's1925 filmdramatising the mutiny

The immediate effects of the mutiny are difficult to assess. It may have influencedTsarNicholas II's decisions to end the Russo-Japanese War and accept theOctober Manifesto,as the mutiny demonstrated that his régime no longer had the unquestioning loyalty of the military. The mutiny's failure did not stop other revolutionaries from inciting insurrections later that year, including theSevastopol Uprising.Vladimir Lenin,leader of theBolshevik Party,called the 1905 Revolution, including thePotemkinmutiny, a "dress rehearsal" for his successfulrevolution in 1917.[35]Thecommunistsseized upon it as apropagandasymbol for their party and unduly emphasised their role in the mutiny. In fact, Matushenko explicitly rejected the Bolsheviks because he and the other leaders of the mutiny weresocialistsof one type or another and cared nothing for communism.[36]

The mutiny was memorialised most famously bySergei Eisensteinin his 1925 silent filmBattleship Potemkin,although the French silent filmLa Révolution en Russie(Revolution in RussiaorRevolution in Odessa,1905), directed byLucien Nonguetwas the first film to depict the mutiny,[37]preceding Eisenstein's far more famous film by 20 years. Filmed shortly after the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922,[36]with the derelictDvenadsat Apostolovstanding in for the broken-upPotemkin,[38]Eisenstein recast the mutiny into a predecessor of theOctober Revolutionof 1917 that swept the Bolsheviks to power. He emphasised their role, and implied that the mutiny failed because Matushenko and the other leaders were not better Bolsheviks.[further explanation needed]Eisenstein made other changes to dramatise the story, ignoring the major fire that swept through Odessa's dock area whilePotemkinwas anchored there, combining the many different incidents of rioters and soldiers fighting into a famous sequence on the steps (today known as thePotemkin Stairs), and showing a tarpaulin thrown over the sailors to be executed.[36]

In accordance with theMarxistdoctrine that history is made by collective action, not individuals, Eisenstein forbore to single out any person in his film, but rather focused on the "mass protagonist".[39]Soviet film critics hailed this approach, including thedramaturgeand critic,Adrian Piotrovsky,writing for theLeningradnewspaperKrasnaia gazeta:

The hero is the sailors' battleship, the Odessa crowd, but characteristic figures are snatched here and there from the crowd. For a moment, like a conjuring trick, they attract all the sympathies of the audience: like the sailor Vakulinchuk, like the young woman and child on the Odessa Steps, but they emerge only to dissolve once more into the mass. This signifies: no film stars but a film of real-life types.[40]

Similarly, theatre critic Alexei Gvozdev wrote in the journalArtistic Life(Zhizn ikusstva):[41]"InPotemkinthere is no individual hero as there was in the old theatre. It is the mass that acts: the battleship and its sailors and the city and its population in revolutionary mood. "[42]

The last survivor of the mutiny wasIvan Beshoff,who died on 25 October 1987 at the age of 102 inDublin,Ireland.[43]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^All dates used in this article areNew Style.

References[edit]

  1. ^McLaughlin 2003, pp. 117–118
  2. ^abMcLaughlin 2003, p. 116
  3. ^McLaughlin 2003, pp. 116, 119–120
  4. ^abcdefghMcLaughlin 2003, p. 119
  5. ^Friedman, pp. 251–253
  6. ^Friedman, pp. 260–261
  7. ^Friedman, p. 264
  8. ^Smigielski, p. 160
  9. ^Friedman, p. 348
  10. ^abMcLaughlin 2003, pp. 294–295
  11. ^abMcLaughlin 2003, p. 304
  12. ^Silverstone, p. 378
  13. ^McLaughlin 2003, pp. 116, 121
  14. ^Watts, p. 24
  15. ^Bascomb, pp. 20–24
  16. ^Bascomb, pp. 63–67
  17. ^Bascomb, pp. 60–72, 88–94, 96–103
  18. ^Bascomb, pp. 55–60, 112–127, 134–153, 164–167, 170–178
  19. ^Bascomb, pp. 179–201
  20. ^Zebroski, p. 21
  21. ^Bascomb, pp. 224–227, 231–247, 252–254, 265–270, 276–281
  22. ^Bascomb, pp. 286–299
  23. ^Bascomb, p. 297
  24. ^abcdefMcLaughlin 2003, p. 121
  25. ^Silverstone, p. 380
  26. ^Godin & Palmer, p. 33
  27. ^Polmar & Noot, p. 230
  28. ^McLaughlin 2003, pp. 120–121, 172, 295
  29. ^McLaughlin 2001, pp. 123, 127
  30. ^abNekrasov, pp. 49, 54
  31. ^Halpern, p. 230
  32. ^Halpern, p. 231
  33. ^Nekrasov, p. 67
  34. ^Nekrasov, p. 116
  35. ^Bascomb, p. 185
  36. ^abcBascomb, pp. 183–184
  37. ^Oscherwitz & Higgins, pp. 320–321
  38. ^McLaughlin 2003, p. 52
  39. ^Bordwell, pp. 43, 267
  40. ^Quoted in Taylor, p. 76
  41. ^Taylor, p. 76
  42. ^Quoted in Taylor, p. 78
  43. ^Beshoff, Ivan (28 October 1987)."Last Survivor of Mutiny on the Potemkin".The New York Times.Associated Press.

Sources[edit]

External links[edit]

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