STS-8
Names | Space Transportation System-8 |
---|---|
Mission type | Communications satellitedeployment |
Operator | NASA |
COSPAR ID | 1983-089A |
SATCATno. | 14312 |
Mission duration | 6 days, 1 hour, 8 minutes, 43 seconds |
Distance travelled | 4,046,660 km (2,514,480 mi) |
Orbits completed | 98 |
Spacecraft properties | |
Spacecraft | Space ShuttleChallenger |
Launch mass | 110,108 kg (242,747 lb) |
Landing mass | 92,508 kg (203,945 lb) |
Payload mass | 12,011 kg (26,480 lb) |
Crew | |
Crew size | 5 |
Members | |
Start of mission | |
Launch date | August 30, 1983, 06:32:00UTC(2:32amEDT) |
Launch site | Kennedy,LC-39A |
Contractor | Rockwell International |
End of mission | |
Landing date | September 5, 1983, 07:40:43PDT) | UTC (12:40:43am
Landing site | Edwards,Runway22 |
Orbital parameters | |
Reference system | Geocentric orbit |
Regime | Low Earth orbit |
Perigee altitude | 348 km (216 mi) |
Apogee altitude | 356 km (221 mi) |
Inclination | 28.51° |
Period | 90.60 minutes |
Instruments | |
| |
STS-8 mission patch From left:Brandenstein,Gardner,Truly,ThorntonandBluford. |
STS-8was the eighthNASASpace Shuttlemission and the third flight of theSpace ShuttleChallenger.It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983, conducting the first night launch and night landing of theSpace Shuttle program.It also carried the firstAfrican-Americanastronaut,Guion Bluford.The mission successfully achieved all of its planned research objectives, but was marred by the subsequent discovery that asolid-fuel rocket boosterhad almost malfunctioned catastrophically during the launch.
The mission's primary payload wasINSAT-1B,anIndiancommunicationsandweather observationsatellite, which was released by the orbiter and boosted into ageostationary orbit.The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle'sCanadarm(remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on boardChallengerincluded the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields undermicrogravity,and research intospace adaptation syndrome(also known as "space sickness" ). The flight furthermore served as shakedown testing for the previously launchedTDRS-1satellite, which would be required to support the subsequentSTS-9mission.
Crew
[edit]Position | Astronaut | |
---|---|---|
Commander | Richard H. Truly Second and last spaceflight | |
Pilot | Daniel Brandenstein First spaceflight | |
Mission Specialist 1 | Guion Bluford First spaceflight | |
Mission Specialist 2 Flight Engineer |
Dale Gardner First spaceflight | |
Mission Specialist 3 | William E. Thornton First spaceflight |
This mission had a crew of five, with threemission specialists.It was the second mission (afterSTS-7) to fly with a crew of five, the largest carried by a single spacecraft up to that date.[1]The crew was historically notable for the participation ofGuion Bluford,who became the first African-American to fly in space.[2]
The commander, Truly, was the only veteran astronaut of the crew, having flown as the pilot onSTS-2in 1981 and for two of theApproach and Landing Tests(ALT) aboardEnterprisein 1977. Prior to this, he had worked as acapsule communicator(CAPCOM) for all threeSkylabmissions and theASTPmission.[3]Brandenstein, Gardner and Bluford had all been recruited in 1978, and been training for a mission since 1979.[4]The mission had originally been planned for a crew of four, with Thornton added to the crew as a third mission specialist in December 1982, eight months after the crew was originally named.[5]As with Truly, he was anApollo-era recruit, having joined NASA in 1967.[6]His participation on the mission included a series of tests aimed at gathering information on the physiological changes linked withSpace Adaptation Syndrome,more commonly known as "space sickness"; this had become a focus of attention in NASA, as astronauts succumbed to it during Shuttle missions.[5]
The orbiter carried twoExtravehicular Mobility Unit(EMUs) for use in case of anemergency spacewalk;if needed, they would be used by Truly and Gardner.[7]
Crew seat assignments
[edit]Seat[8] | Launch | Landing | Seats 1–4 are on the flight deck. Seats 5–7 are on the mid-deck. |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Truly | ||
2 | Brandenstein | ||
3 | Bluford | ||
4 | Gardner | ||
5 | Thornton | ||
6 | Unused | ||
7 | Unused |
Mission plan and payloads
[edit]An early plan for STS-8, released in April 1982, had scheduled it for July 1983. It was expected to be a three-day mission with four crew members, and would launchINSAT-1B,an Indian satellite, andTDRS-B,a NASA communications relay satellite.[9]However, following problems with theInertial Upper Stage(IUS) used to deploy TDRS-A on theSTS-6mission, it was announced in May 1983 that the TDRS was not going to be flown. It was replaced in the manifest[10]by the Payload Flight Test Article.[11]After re-development of the IUS, TDRS-B was eventually re-manifested for theSTS-51-Lmission, and was lost along with the Space ShuttleChallengerand its crew when the launch failed in January 1986.[12]
The primary element of the STS-8 mission payload was INSAT-1B. It was the second in a series of multi-purpose weather and communications satellites to be operated by theIndian Space Research Organisation(ISRO); the first,INSAT-1A,had been launched by aDelta launch vehiclein April 1982, but had to be shut down shortly afterwards due to a failure of the onboard reaction control system(RCS). The satellite was carried in the rear of the shuttle's payload bay, and was boosted into aGeostationary transfer orbit(GTO) by aPayload Assist Module(PAM-D), a smallsolid rocketupper stage,after its release from the orbiter.[13]The satellite, with its upper stage, massed a total of 3,377 kg (7,445 lb), with the cradle massing another 1,102 kg (2,429 lb),[14]and had cost around US$50 million.[15]
The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,[9]but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.[11]It was analuminumstructure resembling two wheels with a 6 m (20 ft) long central axle, ballasted withleadto give it a total mass of 3,855 kg (8,499 lb), which could be lifted by the"Canadarm" Remote Manipulator System– the Shuttle's "robot arm" – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.[16]
The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown onColumbiato carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction ofambient atomic oxygenwith the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.[17]
FourGetaway Special(GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects ofcosmic rayson electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter usingultravioletabsorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed forSpacelab 2.A third, sponsored by theJapaneseAsahi Shimbunnewspaper, tried to usewater vaporin two tanks to createsnow crystals.This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown onSTS-6,which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown onSTS-3,and studied the ambient levels ofatomic oxygenby measuring the rates at which smallcarbonandosmiumwafersoxidized.[18]
The mission, in cooperation with theUnited States Postal Service(USPS), also carried 260,000postal coversfranked with US$9.35 expresspostage stamps,which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.[19]
A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous FlowElectrophoresisSystem, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research intodiabetestreatments.[20]A small animal cage was flown containing sixrats;no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.[21]The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involvedWilliam E. Thorntonusingbiofeedbacktechniques, to try to determine if they worked inmicrogravity.[21]A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).[22]
The mission was also scheduled to carry out a series of tests with the TDRS-1 satellite which had been deployed bySTS-6,to ensure the system was fully operational before it was used to support theSpacelab programon the upcomingSTS-9flight.[23]The orbiter furthermore carried equipment to allow for encrypted transmissions, to be tested for use in future classified missions.[24]
Support crew
[edit]Mission summary
[edit]Launch preparations
[edit]Preparation for the mission began on June 3, 1983, with the assembly of the shuttle'ssolid rocket boosters(SRB) on theMobile Launcher Platform.The boosters were stacked on June 20, 1983, and theexternal tank(ET) mated to the assembly on June 23, 1983.Challengerarrived atKennedy Space Centeron June 29, 1983, and was transferred to theOrbiter Processing Facilityon June 30, 1983. After post-flight maintenance and preparation for the new mission, including the installation of most flight payloads, the shuttle was transferred to theVehicle Assembly Buildingon July 27, 1983, and mated to the booster/tank stack. The stack was checked out on July 29 and 30, 1983, and moved toLaunch Complex 39Aon August 2, 1983.[25]INSAT-1B was loaded into the orbiter when on the pad; the overall processing time fromChallengerarriving at KSC to being ready for launch was only sixty-two days, a record for the program at the time.[26]
The launch had originally been scheduled for on August 4, 1983, and was later rescheduled for on August 20, 1983.[27]The requirement to conduct testing with theTracking and Data Relay Satellite System(TDRSS) required a delay of ten days for the system to be ready, during which the stack remained on the launch pad.[28]During the on-pad delay,Hurricane Barry (1983)hit theFloridacoastline, making landfall just south of the Kennedy Space Center on the morning of August 25, 1983. The storm had only been identified two days earlier, and there was no time to rollChallengerback from the pad; the decision was made to secure the launch stack and ride out the storm.[29]
Launch
[edit]Challengerfinally launched at 06:32:00UTC(02:32:00EDT) on August 30, 1983,[30]after a final 17-minute delay due tothunderstormsnear the launch site.[31]The launch window extended from 06:15 to 06:49.[32]The countdown to launch was called by Mark Hess, public information officer.
The launch, which occurred in pre-dawn darkness, was the first American night launch sinceApollo 17,[33]and was watched by several thousand spectators. The unusual launching time was due to tracking requirements for the primary payload, INSAT-1B;[1]the program would not have another night launch untilSTS-61-Bin 1985.[34]The crew had attempted to prepare for it by training in darkened simulators so as to keep theirnight vision,but in practice it was discovered that the light of the solid-fuel rocket boosters made the immediate area around the launchpad virtually as bright as a day launch.[35]
The launch was the first to use a newly developed high-performance motor for the solid rocket boosters, which gave approximately 7% greater thrust. Post-flight analysis later showed there was nearly a burn-through of the rocket casing, a significant problem that laterdoomed the 51-L mission(see "Post-flight safety analysis" section below for more). This launch was also the second-to-last to use the original standard-mass steel casings for the boosters. These had been replaced by a thinner case, saving some 1,800 kg (4,000 lb), onSTS-6andSTS-7,but because of safety concerns the next two flights used the conventional cases.[36]
Orbital operations
[edit]After a successful insertion into a circular orbit at 296 km (184 mi), the first experiments began; the first two samples were run through the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, and measurements were taken for the atmospheric luminosities study. A hydraulic circulation pump failed, but this was worked around and it proved to have no impact on operations.[31]
The major event of the second day (August 31, 1983) was the successful deployment of the INSAT-1B satellite, which took place at 07:48 UTC, withChallengerthen maneuvering to avoid the firing of the booster motor forty minutes later.[37]Other experimentation continued, though telemetry through TDRS was lost for around three hours, requiring manual intervention.[38]A fire alarm sounded in the morning, indicating signs of a fire in theavionicscompartment, but a second alarm remained silent and it was eventually determined to be a false alarm.[39]
On the third and fourth days (September 1 and 2, 1983), work began with theCanadarmRemote Manipulator System and the payload test article, and communications testing through TDRS continued. The former was successful, but the latter lost contact on a number of occasions, due to problems at theWhite Sandsground station.[40]As a result, the crew had to be awakened early on September 1, 1983, in order to deal with the problem.[41]A minor cabin pressure leak on September 2, 1983, was traced to the waste management system, and quickly controlled.[40]The orbiter performed anOrbital Maneuvering System(OMS) firing on September 2, 1983, to place itself in a lower orbit, where the air density was higher and the oxygen interaction experiments would work more effectively.[42]
On the fifth day (September 3, 1983), testing of the Canadarm continued, including a number of optional "shopping list" tests, and the TDRS tests were carried out with more success.[40]A live press conference was held late in the day, the first in-flight press conference sinceApollo 17.[43]On the sixth day (September 4, 1983), experiment runs were completed and the crew prepared to deorbit. Two systems failures were recorded on this last day, the most serious of which involved a synchronization failure in one of the onboard computers.[40]
While on orbit,Challengermade a number of altitude andattitudeadjustments, in order to test the behavior of a Shuttle orbiter and to perform some experiments in different thermal conditions. By exposing or shading areas from the sun in an unusual way, it was possible to induce particularly warm or cold conditions and observe any resulting problems.[44]
Landing
[edit]The mission plan called for a landing atEdwards Air Force Base,California,at 121:28mission elapsed time(MET).[45]On the original plan, this would have been at 07:44UTCon September 4, 1983, before accounting for the last-minute launch delay;[32]in the event, this was put back by one day to allow for further communications testing, andChallengertouched down at 07:40:33 UTC (00:40:33PDT), September 5, 1983, on Runway 22 at Edwards Air Force Base, on the morning of the seventh day of the mission.[30]As with the launch, this was the first night landing of the program. The Shuttle orbiters had no on-board lights, due to the difficulty of designinglanding lightsto survive re-entry,[24]and so the runway was lit by high-intensityxenon arc lampsto guide the orbiter in.[32]There was no pressing operational requirement for a night landing, but there was a desire to prove it was possible.[1]Footage of the landing was shown in the 1986 filmSpaceCamp.
Post-flight safety analysis
[edit]The launch was carried out with no obvious anomalies, but on September 27, 1983, during post-flight inspection of the solid rocket boosters, severe corrosion was discovered in the left-hand booster. The three-8 cm (3.1 in)-thick resin lining protecting the rocket nozzle, which was designed to erode about half its thickness during firing, was found to have burned down to as little as 0.5 cm (0.20 in) in places. By some estimations, this left around 14 seconds of firing time before the nozzle would have ruptured, a situation which would have resulted in loss of control and the probable break-up of the spacecraft. It was later determined that this fault was due to the particular batch of resin used on this set of boosters.[33]The burn-through problem was treated as a small mishap by the media, and did not receive significant interest until after theChallengerdisasterin 1986;[33]the only major contemporary public criticism came from NASA'sSovietcounterparts.[46]As a result of this incident, the flight of STS-9 was delayed for a month while the nozzles of its boosters were changed.[47]
Post-flight inspection of thethermal protection systemtiles found seven major debris impacts and forty-nine minor impacts, of which three and twenty-six respectively were on the orbiter's underside.[48]This was the lowest incidence of major tile damage until at leastSTS-74,[49]and compares very favorably with the program average of twenty-three major impacts to the underside.[50]It was the first Shuttle flight with no significant problems reported for the thermal protection system.[51]Three windows were removed from the orbiter due to pitting and hazing.[52]
A total of thirty-three in-flight anomalies were eventually reported.[53]As well as the issues above, STS-8's more minor problems ranged from faultythermostats[54]to an unusually high amount of dust in the cabin.[55]
Scientific results
[edit]Overall, the crew successfully completed all fifty-four of the planned mission test objectives.[56]While the INSAT deployment was a success, the satellite had problems unfolding its solar array once in geostationary orbit, and was not fully operational until the middle of September 1983. Once functional, however, it provided satisfactory service for seven years, returning 36,000 images of Earth and broadcasting television to thousands of remote Indian villages.[37]The Payload Flight Test Article evaluation found that the Canadarm remote manipulator system was capable of moving bulky masses with some accuracy, to a precision of 5 cm (2.0 in) and 1° of alignment.[57]
The TDRS-1 program was overall less successful, with the satellite suffering several computer failures and an overall loss of telemetry for several hours. In all, the orbiter was able to use the satellite for 65 of the planned 89 orbits, and could make successful use of the connection on about forty.[57]The Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System equipment functioned as planned, processing several hundred times more material than would have been possible on Earth,[58]and theAsahi Shimbuncrystal experiment, flown for the second time, was able to producesnowcrystals after the canister was redesigned.[57]
Thornton's research intospace adaptation sicknessnoted that the STS-8 astronauts had escaped severe cases, with none suffering loss ofmotor control;[59]Gardner suffered a "mild case", but was still able to manage effectively,[60]while Brandenstein – who had suffered from induced motion sickness during training operations – was entirely unaffected.[15]The symptoms were found to abate within three days of launch.[59]
Wake-up calls
[edit]NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts duringProject Gemini,and first used music to wake up a flight crew duringApollo 15.Each track is specially chosen, often by the astronauts' families, and usually has a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or is applicable to their daily activities.[61][62]
Flight day | Song | Artist/Composer | Played for |
---|---|---|---|
Day 2 | "Georgia Tech Fight Song" | Richard H. Truly | |
Day 3 | "Illinois Fight Song" | Dale Gardner | |
Day 4 | "Penn State Fight Song" | Guion Bluford | |
Day 5 | "University of North CarolinaFight Song " | William E. Thornton | |
Day 6 | "Tala Sawari" | Ravi Shankar | INSAT |
Day 7 | "Semper Fidelis" | John Philip Sousa |
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^abcJenkins, p. 271
- ^Jenkins, p. 271. An African-American test pilot,Robert Henry Lawrence Jr.,had been selected for theU.S. Air ForceManned Orbiting Laboratory(MOL) program in 1967, but was killed in a flying accident a few months later. The Manned Orbiting Laboratory program was canceled in June 1969, and most of its surviving astronauts transferred to NASA. Outside the United States,Arnaldo Tamayo Méndezwas aCubanAir Force officer who flew on theSoyuz 38mission in 1980 as part of theSovietInterkosmosprogram, and became the first person of African descent in space.
- ^STS-8 Press Kit 1983,p. 47.
- ^Press kit, pp. 48–50This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^abEvans, p. 76
- ^Press kit, p. 51This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^STS-8 Press Information1983,p. 61.
- ^"STS-8".Spacefacts.RetrievedJuly 29,2024.
- ^abMcCormack, Dick; Hess, Mark (April 14, 1982)."Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46"(PDF)(Press release). NASA.hdl:2060/19820014425.Archivedfrom the original on April 12, 2022.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^The term "manifest"is used by NASA to indicate both the overall program schedule and the individual payloads and experiments planned for a single flight.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^abSTS-8 Press Information1983,p. i.
- ^Jenkins, p. 287
- ^Press kit, p. 34This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Press kit, p. 31This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^abEvans, p. 83
- ^Press kit, p. 32This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated "Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials" (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Press kit, p. 37This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Press kit, p. 38This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^abPress kit, p. 39This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^STS-9 Press Information,p. 60. This was formally designated as "Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities".This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Press kit, p. 42This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^abMajor NASA satellite missions,p. 34This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Press kit, p. 11;Shuttle flight data,p. 1-270This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Evans, p. 75
- ^Jenkins, p. 266. Some sources give an originally planned date of August 14, 1983.
- ^Shuttle flight data,p. 1-330This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^"Shuttle nestled away from the storm".Spokane Chronicle.August 25, 1983.RetrievedJuly 7,2009.
- ^abJenkins, p. 266
- ^abSTS-9 Press Information,p. 84This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^abcPress kit, p. 5This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^abcShayler, p. 136
- ^Jenkins, p. 275
- ^Evans, p. 80
- ^Jenkins, p. 425
- ^abEvans, p. 85
- ^STS-9 press information,pp. 84–85
- ^Rosenthal, Harry F. (September 1, 1983)."Shuttle launches satellite despite 'fire'".Associated Press.RetrievedJuly 31,2009.
- ^abcdSTS-9 press information,p. 85This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Benedict, Howard (September 1, 1983)."Challenger tests its robot arm successfully".Associated Press.RetrievedJuly 31,2009.
- ^Benedict, Howard (September 2, 1983)."Challenger crew conducts various scientific experiments".Associated Press.RetrievedJuly 31,2009.
- ^Benedict, Howard (September 3, 1983)."Challenger just humming along".Associated Press.RetrievedJuly 31,2009.
- ^Evans, p. 90
- ^Press kit, p. 14This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Shayler, p. 166
- ^Shuttle flight data,p. 1-331
- ^Shuttle flight data,p. 1-220. "Major" is defined as a divot over one2.5 cm (0.98 in) in diameter.
- ^Shuttle flight data,pp. 1–220 to 1–222This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Columbia Accident Investigation Board Report,vol. I, p. 122
- ^Shuttle flight data,p. 1-227This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Shuttle flight data,p. 1-232This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Shuttle flight data,p. 2-3This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Shuttle flight data,p. 2-24
- ^Evans, p. 91
- ^STS-9 press information,p. 84This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^abcEvans, p. 88
- ^Evans, p. 86
- ^abEvans, p. 78
- ^Evans, p. 77
- ^Fries, Colin (June 25, 2007)."Chronology of Wakeup Calls"(PDF).NASA. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on December 20, 2023.RetrievedAugust 13,2007.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^"40 Years Ago: STS-8, the First African American in Space, and the First Space Shuttle Night Launch and Landing – NASA".September 1, 2023.RetrievedFebruary 15,2024.
Bibliography
[edit]- Shayler, David J. (2000).Disasters and accidents in manned spaceflight.Springer-Praxis.ISBN1-85233-225-5.
- Jenkins, Dennis R. (2001).Space Shuttle – the history of the national space transportation system: the first 100 missions(3rd ed.). Midland.ISBN1-85780-116-4.
- Evans, Ben (2007).Space Shuttle Challenger: ten journeys into the unknown.Springer.ISBN978-0-387-46355-1.
- Shuttle flight data and in-flight anomaly list – STS-1 through STS-71, STS-73 and STS-74 (5th revision).NASA. April 1996.hdl:2060/19960047214.
- STS-8 Press Information(PDF).Rockwell International. August 1983.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- STS-9 press information(PDF).Rockwell International. November 1983.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- Orloff, Richard W., ed. (January 2001) [August 1983].Space Shuttle Mission STS-8 Press Kit(PDF).NASA.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- Major NASA satellite missions and key participants: volume III.Vol. III. NASA. 1983.hdl:2060/19920075896.
External links
[edit]- STS-8 infoArchivedJune 16, 2008, at theWayback MachineNASA Kennedy Space Center
- STS-8 video highlightsArchivedOctober 23, 2008, at theWayback MachineNSS