Jump to content

Saffron

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, seeSaffron (disambiguation).

Saffron crocus,Crocus sativus,with its vivid crimson stigmas and styles
Saffron "threads", plucked from crocus flowers and dried

Saffron(/ˈsæfrən,-rɒn/)[1]is a spice derived from the flower ofCrocus sativus,commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimsonstigmaand styles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as aseasoningand colouring agent in food. The saffron crocus was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.

Saffron's taste andiodoform-like orhay-like fragrance result from thephytochemicalspicrocrocinandsafranal.[2][3]It also contains acarotenoidpigment,crocin,which imparts a rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles.Its recorded historyis attested in a 7th-century BCAssyrianbotanical treatise,[4]and it has beentraded and usedfor thousands of years. As of 2018,Iranproduced some 88% of the world total for saffron.[5][6]At US$5,000 per kg or higher, saffron has long been the world's costliest spice by weight.[7][8][9]

Etymology[edit]

Further information:History of saffron

A degree of uncertainty surrounds the origin of the English word "saffron". It might stem from the 12th-centuryOld Frenchtermsafran,which comes from the Latin wordsafranum,from the Arabic (زَعْفَرَان,za'farān),[10]which comes from the Persian wordzarparān(زرپران) meaning "gold strung" (implying either the golden stamens of the flower or the golden colour it creates when used as flavour).[11]

Species[edit]

Main article:Crocus sativus

Description[edit]

Saffron Flowers
Crocus flowers which yield red saffron stigmas
Saffron onions
Corms

The domesticated saffron crocus,Crocus sativus,is an autumn-floweringperennial plantunknown in the wild. It probably descends from the eastern Mediterranean autumn-floweringCrocus cartwrightianuswhich is also known as "wild saffron"[12]and is native to mainlandGreece,Euboea,Crete,Skyrosand some islands of theCyclades.[13]The similar speciesC. thomasiiandC. pallasiiwere considered as other possible ancestors.[14][15]As a genetically monomorphic clone incapable of seed production, it was slowly propagated by humans throughout much ofEurasia.[16]Before this recent research various origins had been suggested for saffron, includingIran,[17]Greece,[18]Mesopotamia.[17]and Kashmir.[19]

It is a steriletriploidform, which means that three homologous sets ofchromosomesmake up each specimen's genetic complement;C. sativusbears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in total.[20]Being sterile, the purple flowers ofC. sativusfail to produce viable seeds; reproduction hinges on human assistance: clusters ofcorms,underground, bulb-like, starch-storing organs, must be dug up, divided, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via vegetative division up to ten "cormlets" that can grow into new plants in the next season.[21]The compact corms are small, brown globules that can measure as large as 5 cm (2 in) in diameter, have a flat base, and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibres; this coat is referred to as the "corm tunic". Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to 5 cm (2 in) above the plant's neck.[20]

The plant sprouts 5–11 white and non-photosyntheticleaves known ascataphylls.These membrane-like structures cover and protect 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop on the crocus flower. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are1–3 mm (1⁄32–1⁄8in), in diameter, which either expand after the flowers have opened ( "hysteranthous" ) or do so simultaneously with their blooming ( "synanthous" ).C. sativuscataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bearbracteoles,or specialised leaves, that sprout from the flower stems; the latter are known aspedicels.[20]Afteraestivatingin spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to 40 cm (16 in) in length. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve.[22]The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance. Upon flowering, the plants are 20–30 cm (8–12 in) in height and bear up to four flowers. A three-prongedstyle25–30 mm (1–1+3⁄16in) in length, emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimsonstigma,which is the distal end of acarpel.[21][20]

Cultivation[edit]

The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, probably descends fromCrocus cartwrightianus.It is atriploidthat is "self-incompatible" and male sterile; it undergoes aberrantmeiosisand is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction—all propagation is byvegetative multiplicationvia manual "divide-and-set" of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation.[23][14]

Crocus sativusthrives in the Mediterraneanmaquis,an ecotype superficially resembling the North Americanchaparral,and similar climates where hot and dry summer breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can nonetheless survive cold winters, tolerating frosts as low as −10 °C (14 °F) and short periods of snow cover.[21][24]Some reports suggest saffron can tolerate an air temperature range from −22 to 40 °C.[25]Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such asKashmir,where annual rainfall averages 1,000–1,500 mm (40–60 in); saffron-growing regions in Greece (500 mm or 20 in annually) and Spain (400 mm or 16 in) are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the local wet seasons; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm the crops,[26]and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up corms.Nematodes,leafrusts,and corm rot pose other threats. YetBacillus subtilisinoculation may provide some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass yield.[27]

The plants fare poorly in shady conditions; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope towards the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged 7–15 cm (3–6 in) deep; its roots, stems, and leaves can develop between October and February.[20]Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron, though they form fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by planting 15 cm (6 in) deep and in rows2–3 cm (3⁄4–1+1⁄4in) apart; depths of 8–10 cm (3–4 in) optimise flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales.

C. sativusprefers friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-calcareoussoils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some 20–30 tonnes per hectare (9–13 short tons per acre) of manure. Afterwards, and with no further manure application, corms were planted.[28]After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.[29]All plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks.[30]Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.[31]

Harvesting[edit]

Sargol saffron, the strongest Iranian grade

The high retail value of saffron is maintained on world markets because of labour-intensive harvesting methods, which require some 440,000 hand-picked saffron stigmas per kilogram (200,000 stigmas/lb) – equivalently, 150,000 crocus flowers per kilogram (70,000 flowers/lb).[6][32][33][34]Forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.[35]

One freshly picked crocus flower yields on average 30 mg of fresh saffron or 7 mg dried; roughly 150 flowers yield1 g (1⁄32oz) of dry saffron threads; to produce12 g (7⁄16oz) of dried saffron, 450 g (1 lb) of flowers are needed; the yield of dried spice from fresh saffron is only 13 g/kg (0.2 oz/lb).[28]

Spice[edit]

Phytochemistry and sensory properties[edit]

Structure ofpicrocrocin:[36]
β–D-glucopyranose derivative
safranal moiety
Esterificationreaction betweencrocetinandgentiobiose.Components of α–crocin:[37]
β–D-gentiobiose
crocetin

Saffron contains some 28volatile and aroma-yielding compounds,dominated byketonesandaldehydes.[38]Its main aroma-active compounds aresafranal– the main compound responsible for saffron aroma – 4-ketoisophorone, and dihydrooxophorone.[37][38]Saffron also contains nonvolatilephytochemicals,[39]including thecarotenoidszeaxanthin,lycopene,various α- and β-carotenes,as well ascrocetinand itsglycosidecrocein, which are the most biologically active components.[37][40]Because crocetin is smaller and more water-soluble than the other carotenoids, it is more rapidly absorbed.[40]

The yellow-orange colour of saffron is primarily the result of α-crocin.[37]Thiscrocinis trans-crocetindi-(β-D-gentiobiosyl)ester;it bears thesystematic (IUPAC) name8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.[39]Crocins themselves are a series ofhydrophiliccarotenoids that are eithermonoglycosylor diglycosylpolyeneesters of crocetin.[39]Crocetin is aconjugatedpolyenedicarboxylic acidthat ishydrophobic,and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin isesterifiedwith two water-soluble gentiobioses, which aresugars,a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may make up more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes.[41]

The bitterglucosidepicrocrocinis responsible for saffron'spungent flavour.[37]Picrocrocin (chemical formula:C
16H
26O
7;systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carbaldehyde) is a union of analdehydesub-molecule known assafranal(systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carbaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoidzeaxanthinthat is produced viaoxidativecleavage, and is theglycosideof theterpenealdehydesafranal.[42]

When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yieldD–glucoseand a free safranal molecule.[36]Safranal, avolatileoil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.[2][43]Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.[42]A second molecule underlying saffron's aroma is2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one,which produces a scent described as saffron, dried hay-like.[42]Chemists find this is the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance, despite its presence in a lesser quantity than safranal.[42]Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuatingpHlevels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light andoxidisingagents. It must, therefore, be stored away in air-tight containers to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.

Grades and ISO 3632 categories[edit]

Red threads and yellow styles from Iran
High quality red threads from Austrian saffron
Kashmirisaffron package

Saffron is not all of the same quality and strength. Strength is related to several factors including the amount of style picked along with the red stigma. Age of the saffron is also a factor. More style included means the saffron is less strong gram for gram because the colour and flavour are concentrated in the red stigmas. Saffron fromIran,Spain andKashmiris classified into various grades according to the relative amounts of red stigma and yellow styles it contains. Grades of Iranian saffron are:sargol(Persian:سرگل,red stigma tips only, strongest grade),pushalorpushali(red stigmas plus some yellow style, lower strength), "bunch" saffron (red stigmas plus large amount of yellow style, presented in a tiny bundle like a miniature wheatsheaf) andkonge(yellow style only, claimed to have aroma but with very little, if any, colouring potential). Grades of Spanish saffron arecoupé(the strongest grade, like Iranian sargol),mancha(like Iranian pushal), and in order of further decreasing strengthrio,standardandsierrasaffron. The wordmanchain the Spanish classification can have two meanings: a general grade of saffron or a very high quality Spanish-grown saffron from a specific geographical origin. Real Spanish-grown La Mancha saffron hasPDOprotected status and this is displayed on the product packaging. Spanish growers fought hard for Protected Status because they felt that imports of Iranian saffron re-packaged in Spain and sold as "Spanish Mancha saffron" were undermining the genuine La Mancha brand.[citation needed]Similar was the case inKashmirwhere imported Iranian saffron is mixed with local saffron and sold as "Kashmir brand" at a higher price.[44]In Kashmir, saffron is mostly classified into two main categories calledmongra(stigma alone) andlachha(stigmas attached with parts of the style).[45]Countries producing less saffron do not have specialised words for different grades and may only produce one grade. Artisan producers in Europe and New Zealand have offset their higher labour charges for saffron harvesting by targeting quality, only offering extremely high-grade saffron.

In addition to descriptions based on how the saffron is picked, saffron may be categorised under the international standardISO3632 after laboratory measurement of crocin (responsible for saffron's colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance or aroma) content.[46]However, often there is no clear grading information on the product packaging and little of the saffron readily available in the UK is labelled with ISO category. This lack of information makes it hard for customers to make informed choices when comparing prices and buying saffron.

Under ISO 3632, determination of non-stigma content ( "floral waste content" ) and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ( "ash") are also key. Grading standards are set by theInternational Organization for Standardization,a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes three categories: III (poorest quality), II, and I (finest quality). Formerly there was also category IV, which was below category III. Samples are assigned categories by gauging the spice's crocin and picrocrocin content, revealed by measurements of specific spectrophotometricabsorbance.Safranal is treated slightly differently and rather than there being threshold levels for each category, samples must give a reading of 20–50 for all categories.

These data are measured throughspectrophotometryreports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. Higher absorbances imply greater levels of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal, and thus a greater colouring potential and therefore strength per gram. The absorbance reading of crocin is known as the "colouring strength" of that saffron. Saffron's colouring strength can range from lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 200 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected, most red-maroon, tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive colouring strengths in excess of 250, making such saffron over three times more powerful than category IV saffron. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO categories. Sargol and coupé saffron would typically fall into ISO 3632 category I. Pushal and Mancha would probably be assigned to category II. On many saffron packaging labels, neither the ISO 3632 category nor the colouring strength (the measurement of crocin content) is displayed.

However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. Some people prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of threads for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practised by experiencedwinetasters.[47]However, ISO 3632 grade and colouring strength information allow consumers to make instant comparisons between the quality of different saffron brands, without needing to purchase and sample the saffron. In particular, consumers can work out a value for money based on price per unit of colouring strength rather than price per gram, given the wide possible range of colouring strengths that different kinds of saffron can have.

Adulteration[edit]

Despite attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffronadulteration,particularly among the cheapest grades, continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under theSafranschoucode.[48]Typical methods include mi xing in extraneous substances likebeetroot,pomegranatefibres, red-dyed silk fibres, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odourless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibres with viscid substances likehoneyor vegetable oil to increase their weight. Powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, withturmeric,paprika,and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabelled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income.[49][50][51][52]Saffloweris a common substitute sometimes sold as saffron. The spice is reportedly counterfeited withhorse hair,corn silk,or shredded paper.Tartrazineorsunset yellowhave been used to colour counterfeit powdered saffron.[6]

In recent years, saffron adulterated with the colouring extract ofgardeniafruits has been detected in the European market. This form of fraud is difficult to detect due to the presence offlavonoidsandcrocinesin the gardenia-extracts similar to those naturally occurring in saffron. Detection methods have been developed by usingHPLCandmass spectrometryto determine the presence ofgeniposide,a compound present in the fruits of gardenia, but not in saffron.[53]

Types[edit]

The various saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties (not varieties in the botanical sense) from Spain, including the tradenames "Spanish Superior" and "Creme", are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish. Greek saffron produced in the town ofKrokosisPDOprotected due to its particularly high-quality colour and strong flavour.[54]Various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries—some of them organically grown. In the US, Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its "earthy" notes—is marketed in small quantities.[55][56]

Consumers may regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron, orzafferano dell'Aquila,is defined by high safranal and crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy'sAbruzzoregion, nearL'Aquila.It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican friar from inquisition-era Spain.[when?]But the biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is inSan Gavino Monreale,Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60% of Italian production; it too has unusually high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content.

Another is the "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron of Kashmir (Crocus sativus'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain.[57]Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognizable by its dark maroon-purple hue, making it among the world's darkest.[58]In 2020,Kashmir Valleysaffron was certified with ageographical indicationfrom the Government of India.[59]

World production[edit]

Saffron market inMashad,Iran

Almost all saffron grows in a belt fromSpainin the west to India in the east.Iranis responsible for around 88% of global production.[5]In 2018, Iran cultivated an area of 43,408 ha (107,260 acres) producing 174tonnesfrom a productivity of 4 kg/ha.[5]Afghanistancomes second, which produced over 67 tons in 2023.[60]

Spain is the third largest producer, while theUnited Arab Emirates,Greece,theIndian subcontinentandMoroccoare among minor producers.[5][61]

According to the statistics for saffron trade in 2019, Iran was ranked as the world's largest producer of saffron, supplying 430 tons of the total 450 tons of saffron produced worldwide and is expected to reach 500 tons in 2020. India, producing only 22 tons of saffron annually, ranked second. Other countries reported based on their share in global saffron production includedGreece(7.2 tons), Afghanistan (6 tons), Morocco (2.6 tons), Spain (2.3 tons), Italy (1 ton), China (1 ton), and Azerbaijan (0.23 ton).[62][63]

Trade[edit]

Main article:Saffron trade

Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from $1,100–$11,000/kg ($500–$5,000/lb). In Western countries, the average retail price in 1974 was $2,200/kg ($1,000/lb).[8]In February 2013, a retail bottle containing1.7 g (1⁄16oz) could be purchased for $16.26 or the equivalent of $9,560/kg ($4,336/lb), or as little as about $4,400/kg ($2,000/lb) in larger quantities. There are between 150,000 and 440,000 threads /kg (70,000 and 200,000 threads/lb). Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.

Uses[edit]

Main article:Use of saffron
Dried saffron
Nutritional value per 1 tbsp (2.1 g)
Energy27 kJ (6.5 kcal)
1.37 g
Dietary fibre0.10 g
0.12 g
Saturated0.03 g
Trans0.00 g
Monounsaturated0.01 g
Polyunsaturated0.04 g
0.24 g
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A11 IU
Thiamine (B1)
0%
0 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
1%
0.01 mg
Niacin (B3)
0%
0.03 mg
Vitamin B6
1%
0.02 mg
Folate (B9)
1%
2 μg
Vitamin B12
0%
0 μg
Vitamin C
2%
1.7 mg
Vitamin D
0%
0 μg
Vitamin D
0%
0 IU
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
0%
2 mg
Copper
1%
0.01 mg
Iron
1%
0.23 mg
Magnesium
1%
6 mg
Manganese
26%
0.6 mg
Phosphorus
0%
5 mg
Potassium
1%
36 mg
Selenium
0%
0.1 μg
Sodium
0%
3 mg
Zinc
0%
0.02 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water0.25 g
Full Link to USDA database entry
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[64]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[65]

Saffron has a long history of use intraditional medicine.[66][67]Saffron has also been used as a fabricdye,particularly in China and India, and in perfumery.[68]It is used for religious purposes in India.[69]

Consumption[edit]

Saffron threads soaked in hot water prior to use in food preparation

Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and sweet. Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in Persian,[70]Indian, European, and Arab cuisines. Confectioneries and liquors also often include saffron. Saffron is used in dishes ranging from the jewelled rice andkhoreshof Iran,[71][72]the Milaneserisottoof Italy, thepaellaof Spain, thebouillabaisseof France, to thebiryaniwith various meat accompaniments in South Asia. Saffron is also used in the preparation of theGolden Ham,a precious dry-curedhammade with saffron fromSan Gimignano.[citation needed]Common saffron substitutes includesafflower(Carthamus tinctorius,which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "açafrão" ),annatto,andturmeric(Curcuma longa). InMedieval Europe,turmeric was also known as "Indian saffron" because of its yellow-orange colour.[73]

Nutrition[edit]

Dried saffron is 65%carbohydrates,6% fat, 11%protein(table) and 12% water. In onetablespoon(2 grams; a quantity much larger than is likely to be ingested in normal use)manganeseis present as 29% of theDaily Value,while othermicronutrientshave negligible content (table).

Toxicity[edit]

Ingesting less than1.5 g (1⁄16oz) of saffron is not toxic for humans, but doses greater than5 g (3⁄16oz) can become increasingly toxic.[74]Mild toxicity includes dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, whereas at higher doses there can be reducedplateletcount and spontaneous bleeding.[74]

Storage[edit]

Saffron will not spoil, but will lose flavour within six months if not stored in an airtight, cool and dark place.[75]Freezer storage can maintain flavour for up to two years.[75]

Research[edit]

As of 2020, saffron constituents, such ascrocin,crocetin,andsafranal,were under preliminary research for their potential to affectmental depression.[76][77]Saffron has also been studied for its possible effect on cardiovascularrisk factors,[78]and inerectile dysfunction.[79]

History[edit]

Main article:History of saffron
A detail from the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco of the "Xeste 3" building. It is one of many depicting saffron; they were found at the Bronze Age settlement ofAkrotiri,on the Aegean island of Santorini.

Previously, it was theorised that saffron originated in Iran,[17]Greece,[18]Mesopotamia,[17]or Kashmir.[80]Harold McGee[81]states that it was domesticated in or near Greece during the Bronze Age.C. sativusis probably atriploidform ofCrocus cartwrightianus,[14][82][83][84]which is also known as "wild saffron".[12]Saffron crocus was slowly propagated by humans throughout much ofEurasiaand was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.

Several wild species ofCrocussimilar to the commercial plant are known to have been harvested in recent times for use as saffron.Crocus ancyrensiswas used to make saffron in Sivas in Central Turkey, the corms were also eaten.Crocus cartwrightianuswas harvested on Andros in the islands of the Cyclades, for medicinal purposes and the stigmas for making a pigment called Zafran.Crocus longiflorusstigmas were used for saffron in Sicily.Crocus thomasiistigmas were used to flavour dishes around Taranto, South Italy. In Syria the stigmas of an unknown wild species were collected by women and children, sun-dried and pressed into small tablets which were sold in the Bazaars.[85]Not all ancient depictions or descriptions of saffron spice or flowers are certain to be the same species as the modern commercial species used for spice.[86]

West Asia[edit]

Saffron was detailed in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled underAshurbanipal.[4]Documentation of saffron's use over the span of 3,500 years has been uncovered.[87]Saffron-based pigments have indeed been found in 50,000-year-old depictions of prehistoric places in northwest Iran.[88][89]The Sumerians later used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions.[90]Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before theMinoan palaceculture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron (Crocus sativusvar.haussknechtiinow calledCrocus haussknechtiiby botanists) inDerbent,Isfahan,andKhorasanby the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,[88]ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.[91]Saffron threads would thus be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac.[92]During his Asian campaigns,Alexander the Greatused Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops imitated the practice from the Persians and brought saffron-bathing to Greece.[93]

South Asia[edit]

Buddhist adepts wearing saffron-coloured robes, pray in the Hundred Dragons Hall,Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum,Singapore.

Conflicting theories explain saffron's arrival in South Asia. Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 2500 and 900 years ago.[94][95][96]Historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,[41]attributing it to a Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks.[97]Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. Its use in foods and dyes subsequently spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks wear saffron-coloured robes; however, the robes are not dyed with costly saffron butturmeric,a less expensive dye, orjackfruit.[98]Monks' robes are dyed the same colour to show equality with each other, and turmeric or ochre were the cheapest, most readily available dyes.Gambogeis also used to dye the robes.[99]

East Asia[edit]

Some historians believe that saffron came to China with Mongol invaders from Persia.[100]Yet it is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volumeShennong Bencaojing,a pharmacopoeia written around 300–200 BC. Traditionally credited to the legendaryYan Emperorand the deityShennong,it discusses 252 plant-based medical treatments for various disorders.[101]Nevertheless, around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to it as having a Kashmiri provenance. According to the herbalist Wan Zhen, "the habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha". Wan also reflected on how it was used in his time: "The flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."[96]

South East Mediterranean[edit]

Minoan depictions of saffron are now considered to beCrocus cartwrightianus.[86]TheMinoansportrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1600–1500 BC; they hint at its possible use as a therapeutic drug.[87][102]Ancient Greek legends told of sea voyages toCilicia,where adventurers sought what they believed were the world's most valuable threads.[24]Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the first saffron crocus.[88]Ancient perfumers in Egypt, physicians inGaza,townspeople inRhodes,[103]and the Greekhetaeraecourtesans used saffron in theirscented waters,perfumes and potpourris, mascaras and ointments, divine offerings, and medical treatments.[92]

In latePtolemaic Egypt,Cleopatraused saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable.[104]Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments.[105]Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in suchLevantinecities asSidonandTyrein Lebanon.[106]Aulus Cornelius Celsusprescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in themithridatium.[107]

Western Europe[edit]

Preserved "Safran", Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde, Karlsruhe, Germany

Saffron was a notable ingredient in certain Roman recipes such asjusselleandconditum.[108][109][110][111]Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took it with them when they settled in southernGaul,where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. With this fall, European saffron cultivation plummeted. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th-century AD Moors or with theAvignonpapacy in the 14th century AD.[112]Similarly, the spread of Islamic civilisation may have helped reintroduce the crop to Spain and Italy.[113]

The 14th-centuryBlack Deathcaused demand for saffron-basedmedicamentsto peak, and Europe imported large quantities of threads via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands such as Rhodes. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week-longSaffron War.[114]The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred corm cultivation inBasel;it thereby grew prosperous.[115]The crop then spread toNuremberg,where endemic and insalubrious adulteration brought on theSafranschoucode—whereby culprits were variously fined, imprisoned, and executed.[116]Meanwhile, cultivation continued in southern France, Italy, and Spain.[117]

Direct archaeological evidence of mediaeval saffron consumption in Scandinavia comes from the wreck of the royal Danish-Norwegian flagship,Gribshunden.The ship sank in 1495 while on a diplomatic mission to Sweden. Excavations in 2021 revealed concentrations of saffron threads and small "pucks" of compressed saffron powder, along with fresh ginger, cloves, and pepper. Surprisingly, the saffron retained its distinctive odour even after more than 500 years of submersion in the Baltic Sea.[118]

TheEssextown ofSaffron Walden,named for its new specialty crop, emerged as a prime saffron growing and trading centre in the 16th and 17th centuries but cultivation there was abandoned; saffron was re-introduced around 2013 as well as other parts of the UK (Cheshire).[119][120]

The Americas[edit]

Europeans introduced saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of theSchwenkfelder Churchleft Europe with a trunk containing its corms. Church members had grown it widely in Europe.[55]By 1730, thePennsylvania Dutchcultivated saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was equal to gold.[121]Trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-bearing merchant vessels were destroyed.[122]Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.[123]American saffron cultivation survives into modern times, mainly inLancaster County, Pennsylvania.[55]

Gallery[edit]

  • Saffron farm
    Saffron farm
  • Saffron farm
    Saffron farm
  • Saffron
    Saffron

References[edit]

  1. ^"saffron".Merriam-Webster Dictionary.Retrieved21 November2012.
  2. ^abMcGee 2004,p. 423.
  3. ^Katzer G (2010)."Saffron (Crocus sativusL.) ".Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages.Retrieved1 December2012.
  4. ^abRusso, Dreher & Mathre 2003,p. 6.
  5. ^abcdMenia M, Iqbal S, Zahida R, Tahir S, Kanth RH, Saad AA, Hussian A (2018)."Production technology of saffron for enhancing productivity (see PDF)".Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry.7(1): 1033–1039.ISSN2349-8234.
  6. ^abcHooker L (13 September 2017)."The problem for the world's most expensive spice".Retrieved12 January2020.
  7. ^Rau 1969,p. 53.
  8. ^abHill 2004,p. 272.
  9. ^"World's COSTLIEST spice blooms in Kashmir".Rediff.Retrieved7 January2013.
  10. ^"Saffron".etymonline (Online Etymology Dictionary), Douglas Harper. 2016.Retrieved25 May2016.
  11. ^Asbaghi A (1988).Persische Lehnwörter im Arabischen.Wiesbaden: O. Harrasowitz.ISBN978-3-447-02757-1.OCLC19588893.
  12. ^abKafi et al. 2006,p. 24.
  13. ^Jacobsen N, Ørgaard M (2004)."Crocus cartwrightianus on the Attica Peninsula"(PDF).ISHS Acta Horticulturae.650(6): 65–69.doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.650.6.Retrieved6 April2024.
  14. ^abcGrilli Caiola 2003,p. 1.
  15. ^Negbi 1999,p. 28.
  16. ^Rubio-Moraga et al. 2009.
  17. ^abcdGhorbani R, Koocheki A (2017)."Sustainable Cultivation of Saffron in Iran".In Lichtfouse E (ed.).Sustainable Agriculture Reviews(PDF).Springer. pp. 170–171.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-58679-3.ISBN978-3-319-58679-3.S2CID28214061.
  18. ^abGresta F, Lombardo GM, Siracusa L, Ruberto G (2008)."Saffron, an alternative crop for sustainable agricultural systems. A review".Agronomy for Sustainable Development.28(1): 95–112.doi:10.1051/agro:2007030.S2CID44054590.
  19. ^Saffron: science, technology and health.A. Koocheki, Mohammad Khajeh-Hosseini. Duxford, United Kingdom. 2020.ISBN978-0-12-818740-1.OCLC1140113593.Archivedfrom the original on 19 January 2023.Retrieved28 March2022.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  20. ^abcdeKafi et al. 2006,p. 23.
  21. ^abcDeo 2003,p. 1.
  22. ^Willard 2002,p. 3.
  23. ^Negbi 1999,p. 30–31.
  24. ^abWillard 2002,pp. 2–3.
  25. ^Rezvani-Moghaddam P (1 January 2020), Koocheki A, Khajeh-Hosseini M (eds.),"Chapter 8. Ecophysiology of saffron",Saffron,Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition, Woodhead Publishing, pp. 119–137,ISBN978-0-12-818638-1,retrieved22 February2023
  26. ^Deo 2003,p. 2.
  27. ^Sharaf-Eldin et al. 2008.
  28. ^abDeo 2003,p. 3.
  29. ^Willard 2002,pp. 3–4.
  30. ^Willard 2002,p. 4.
  31. ^Negbi 1999,p. 8.
  32. ^Monks K (3 September 2015)."Iran's homegrown treasure: the spice that costs more than gold".CNN.Retrieved22 January2016.
  33. ^Hill 2004,p. 273.
  34. ^Rau 1969,p. 35.
  35. ^Lak D (11 November 1998)."Kashmiris pin hopes on saffron".BBC News.Retrieved11 September2011.
  36. ^abDeo 2003,p. 4.
  37. ^abcdeDhar MK, Sharma M, Bhat A, Chrungoo NK, Kaul S (28 March 2017). "Functional genomics of apocarotenoids in saffron: insights from chemistry, molecular biology and therapeutic applications (Review)".Briefings in Functional Genomics.16(6): 336–347.doi:10.1093/bfgp/elx003.ISSN2041-2649.PMID28369196.
  38. ^abAmanpour A, Sonmezdag AS, Kelebek H, Selli S (2015). "GC–MS–olfactometric characterization of the most aroma-active components in a representative aromatic extract from Iranian saffron (Crocus sativusL.) ".Food Chemistry.182:251–256.doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.005.ISSN0308-8146.PMID25842335.
  39. ^abcAbdullaev 2002,p. 1.
  40. ^abHosseini A, Razavi BM, Hosseinzadeh H (2018)."Pharmacokinetic Properties of Saffron and its Active Components".European Journal of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics.43(4): 383–390.doi:10.1007/s13318-017-0449-3.PMID29134501.S2CID23836415.
  41. ^abMcGee 2004,p. 422.
  42. ^abcdLeffingwell.
  43. ^Dharmananda 2005.
  44. ^Amjad Masood Husaini, Azra N. Kamili, M. H. Wani, Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva, G. N. Bhat (2010), Husaini AM (ed.),"Sustainable Saffron (Crocus sativusKashmirianus) Production: Technological and Policy Interventions for Kashmir ",Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology,4(2), UK: Global Science Books: 118,ISBN978-4-903313-67-2,ISSN1749-0472
  45. ^Amjad Masood Husaini, Badrul Hassan, Muzaffar Y. Ghani, Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva, Nayar A. Kirmani (2010), Husaini A (ed.),"Saffron (Crocus sativusKashmirianus) Cultivation in Kashmir: Practices and Problems ",Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology,4(2), UK: Global Science Books: 110,ISBN978-4-903313-67-2,ISSN1749-0472
  46. ^Verma & Middha 2010,p. 1–2.
  47. ^Hill 2004,p. 274.
  48. ^Willard 2002,pp. 102–104.
  49. ^"Kashmir's saffron harvest sees sharp decline".Firstpost.18 November 2017.Retrieved1 January2019.
  50. ^Rashid A (22 September 2018)."From 35kgs earlier to 1kg yield now, 'successful' Saffron Mission paves way for apples in Pampore".Free Press Kashmir.Retrieved1 January2019.
  51. ^"Kashmiri Saffron Producers See Red over Iranian Imports".Australian Broadcasting Corp.4 November 2003.Retrieved29 September2011.
  52. ^Hussain A (28 January 2005)."Saffron Industry in Deep Distress".BBC News.London.Retrieved15 September2011.
  53. ^Guijarro-Díez M, Castro-Puyana M, Crego AL, Marina ML (1 January 2017). "Detection of saffron adulteration with gardenia extracts through the determination of geniposide by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry".Journal of Food Composition and Analysis.55:30–37.doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2016.11.004.
  54. ^Bishop S (26 April 2018)."Krokos Kozanis PDO".European Commission.Archived fromthe originalon 17 November 2018.Retrieved16 November2018.
  55. ^abcWillard 2002,p. 143.
  56. ^Willard 2002,p. 201.
  57. ^Vlahova V (2022)."Saffron (Crocus Sativus) as an Alternative Crop in Sustainable Agricultural Systems. a Review "(PDF).Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development.22(2): 778.Archived(PDF)from the original on 22 September 2022.Retrieved22 September2022.
  58. ^Hassan F (19 February 2020)."Farmers Pitch For GI Tag For Kashmiri Saffron, World's Most Expensive Spice".IndiaSpend.Retrieved11 March2022.
  59. ^"Kashmir's saffron gets GI tag".Hindustan Times.25 July 2020.Retrieved27 July2020.
  60. ^"Afghanistan Exports 67 Tons of Saffron, Worth $49M: Ministry".TOLOnews. 4 April 2024.Retrieved23 April2024.
  61. ^"Moroccan saffron farmers battle knockoff spices".Saudi Arabia: Arab News. 17 December 2018.
  62. ^"Global Saffron Market".behinexir company.16 December 2019. Archived fromthe originalon 30 October 2020.Retrieved23 February2023.
  63. ^"Afghanistan's red gold 'saffron' termed world's best".Saudi Arabia: Arab News. 22 December 2019.
  64. ^United States Food and Drug Administration(2024)."Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels".FDA.Archivedfrom the original on 27 March 2024.Retrieved28 March2024.
  65. ^National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Health and Medicine Division, Food and Nutrition Board, Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria M, Harrison M, Stallings VA (eds.).Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium.The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US).ISBN978-0-309-48834-1.PMID30844154.Archivedfrom the original on 9 May 2024.Retrieved21 June2024.
  66. ^Mousavi SZ, Bathaie SZ (2011)."Historical uses of saffron: Identifying potential new avenues for modern research".Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine.1(2): 27–66. Archived fromthe originalon 4 March 2016.Retrieved27 July2014.
  67. ^Basker D, Negbi M (1983). "Uses of saffron".Journal of Economic Botany.37(2): 228–236.doi:10.1007/BF02858789.JSTOR4254486.S2CID40880131.
  68. ^Dalby 2002,p. 138.
  69. ^Mousavi Z, Bathaie, S. (Autumn 2011)."Historical uses of saffron: Identifying potential new avenues for modern research"(PDF).Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine.1:63.
  70. ^Simmons S (October 2007).A Treasury of Persian Cuisine.Stamford House Publishing. pp. 37–38.ISBN978-1-904985-56-3.
  71. ^"Persian Jewelled Rice with Lamb (Gheymeh Nesar)".11 July 2017.
  72. ^"Persian Chicken & Aubergine Stew (Bademjan-Ghooreh Mosama)".20 August 2017.
  73. ^Pickersgill B(2005). Prance G, Nesbitt M (eds.).The Cultural History of Plants.Routledge. p. 170.ISBN0-415-92746-3.
  74. ^abMoshiri M, Vahabzadeh M, Hosseinzadeh H (2015)."Clinical Applications of Saffron (Crocus sativus) and its Constituents: A Review".Drug Research.56(6): 287–295.doi:10.1055/s-0034-1375681.PMID24848002.
  75. ^abauthors W (4 October 2020)."How to Use Saffron".FOOD AND ENTERTAINING – HERBS AND SPICES.wikiHow.Retrieved9 March2021.
  76. ^Marx W, Lane M, Rocks T, Ruusunen A, Loughman A, Lopresti A, Marshall S, Berk M, Jacka F, Dean OM (1 August 2019)."Effect of saffron supplementation on symptoms of depression and anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysis".Nutrition Reviews.77(8): 557–571.doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuz023.ISSN0029-6643.PMID31135916.
  77. ^Dai L, Chen L, Wang W (2020)."Safety and Efficacy of Saffron (Crocus sativusL.) for Treating Mild to Moderate Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis ".The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease.208(4): 269–276.doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000001118.PMID32221179.S2CID210119504.
  78. ^Pourmasoumi M, Hadi A, Najafgholizadeh A, Kafeshani M, Sahebkar A (1 January 2019). "Clinical evidence on the effects of saffron (Crocus sativusL.) on cardiovascular risk factors: A systematic review meta-analysis ".Pharmacological Research.139:348–359.doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2018.11.038.PMID30502528.S2CID54482370.
  79. ^Borrelli F, Colalto C, Delfino DV, Iriti M, Izzo AA (April 2018). "Herbal Dietary Supplements for Erectile Dysfunction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis".Drugs.78(6): 643–673.doi:10.1007/s40265-018-0897-3.PMID29633089.S2CID4759438.
  80. ^Saffron: science, technology and health.A. Koocheki, Mohammad Khajeh-Hosseini. Duxford, United Kingdom. 2020.ISBN978-0-12-818740-1.OCLC1140113593.Archivedfrom the original on 19 January 2023.Retrieved28 March2022.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  81. ^Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking, 2004 edition, pg 422. Scribner, New York, NY,
  82. ^Schmidt T, Heitkam T, Liedtke S, Schubert V, Menzel G (2019)."Adding color to a century-old Enigma: multi-color chromosome identification unravels the autotriploid nature of saffron (Crocus sativus) as a hybrid of wildCrocus cartwrightianuscytotypes ".New Phytologist.222(4): 1965–1980.doi:10.1111/nph.15715.ISSN1469-8137.PMID30690735.
  83. ^Harpke D, Meng S, Rutten T, Kerndorff H, Blattner FR (1 March 2013). "Phylogeny ofCrocus(Iridaceae) based on one chloroplast and two nuclear loci: Ancient hybridization and chromosome number evolution ".Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.66(3): 617–627.Bibcode:2013MolPE..66..617H.doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.007.ISSN1055-7903.PMID23123733.
  84. ^Nemati Z, Harpke D, Gemicioglu A, Kerndorff H, Blattner FR (2019)."Saffron (Crocus sativus) is an autotriploid that evolved in Attica (Greece) from wild Crocus cartwrightianus".Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution.136:14–20.Bibcode:2019MolPE.136...14N.doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2019.03.022.PMID30946897.Retrieved6 April2024.
  85. ^Maw G (1886).A Monograph of the Genus Crocus.Soho Square, London: Dulau and Co. pp. 87, 164, 207, 250.Retrieved6 April2024.
  86. ^abKazemi-Shahandashti SS, Mann L, El-nagish A, Harpke D, Nemati Z, Usadel B, Heitkam T (2022)."Ancient Artworks and Crocus Genetics Both Support Saffron's Origin in Early Greece".Frontiers in Plant Science.13.doi:10.3389/fpls.2022.834416.PMC8913524.PMID35283878.
  87. ^abHonan WH (2 March 2004)."Researchers Rewrite First Chapter for the History of Medicine".The New York Times.Retrieved13 September2011.
  88. ^abcWillard 2002,p. 2.
  89. ^Humphries 1998,p. 20.
  90. ^Willard 2002,p. 12.
  91. ^Willard 2002,pp. 17–18.
  92. ^abWillard 2002,p. 41.
  93. ^Willard 2002,pp. 54–55.
  94. ^Lak D (23 November 1998)."Gathering Kashmir's Saffron".BBC News.Retrieved12 September2011.
  95. ^Fotedar S (1999)."Cultural Heritage of India: The Kashmiri Pandit Contribution".Vitasta.32(1). Kashmir Sabha of Kolkata: 128. Archived fromthe originalon 29 September 2011.Retrieved15 September2011.
  96. ^abDalby 2002,p. 95.
  97. ^Dalby 2003,p. 256.
  98. ^Finlay 2003,p. 224.
  99. ^Hanelt 2001,p. 1352.
  100. ^Fletcher 2005,p. 11.
  101. ^Hayes 2001,p. 6.
  102. ^Ferrence & Bendersky 2004,p. 1.
  103. ^Willard 2002,p. 58.
  104. ^Willard 2002,p. 55.
  105. ^Willard 2002,pp. 34–35.
  106. ^Willard 2002,p. 59.
  107. ^Celsus 1989.
  108. ^Way A (1843).Promptorium parvulorum sive clericorum, lexicon Anglo-Latinum princeps, recens. A. Way.Camden soc. p. 268.Retrieved18 May2016.
  109. ^Pratt A (1855).The Flowering Plants of Great Britain.Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 180.Retrieved18 May2016.
  110. ^Napier R, ed. (1882).A Noble Boke Off Cookry Ffor a Prynce Houssolde Or Eny Other Estately Houssholde.Elliot Stock. pp. 104–105.Retrieved18 May2016.(Reprinted verbatim from a rare manuscript in the Holkham Collection.)
  111. ^"Conditum Paradoxum – Würzwein"[Conditum Paradoxum – Spiced Wine] (in German). Translated by Maier R. 1991. Archived fromthe originalon 8 March 2018.Retrieved3 February2012.
  112. ^Willard 2002,p. 63.
  113. ^Willard 2002,p. 70.
  114. ^Willard 2002,p. 99.
  115. ^Willard 2002,p. 101.
  116. ^Willard 2002,pp. 103–104.
  117. ^Willard 2002,p. 133.
  118. ^Larsson M, Foley B (26 January 2023)."The king's spice cabinet–Plant remains from Gribshunden, a 15th century royal shipwreck in the Baltic Sea".PLOS ONE.18(1): e0281010.Bibcode:2023PLoSO..1881010L.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0281010.ISSN1932-6203.PMC9879437.PMID36701280.
  119. ^Granleese B (16 November 2013)."Interview: Meet the saffron producer: 'It seemed ridiculous that the UK didn't grow it'".The Guardian.
  120. ^"Saffron spice returns to Essex after 200 years".BBC News.7 November 2014.
  121. ^Willard 2002,p. 138.
  122. ^Willard 2002,pp. 138–139.
  123. ^Willard 2002,pp. 142–146.

Bibliography[edit]

External links[edit]

Wikisourcehas the text of the 1920Encyclopedia AmericanaarticleSaffron.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saffron&oldid=1234381245"