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Sahrawis

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Sahrawis
صحراويون
Sahrawi man
Total population
652,271 (2020 est.)[1]
Regions with significant populations
Western Sahara~160,000[2]mostly in theMoroccan-controlled zonewhere they make upabout 30% of the population
Algeria174,000 refugees living in theSahrawi refugee campsatTindouf.[3]
Morocco90,000[4]
Mauritania26,000 (Refugees)[5]
Spain3,000[6]–12,000[7]
Languages
Hassaniya Arabic(native),Berber languages(native),Modern Standard Arabic(written only),Spanish(lingua franca),French(lingua franca)
Religion
PredominantlySunni Islam
Related ethnic groups
Beidane,Moroccans,otherMaghrebi Arabs,otherArab-BerbersandArabized Berbers,otherArabandBerber peoples,Haratin,Gnawa,Afro-Arabs,Tuaregs,otherMaghrebis[8]
Map of the tribes of Western Sahara

TheSahrawis,orSahrawi people(Arabic:صحراويونṣaḥrāwīyūn), are anethnic groupnative to the western part of theSaharadesert, which includes theWestern Sahara,southernMorocco,much ofMauritania,and along the southwestern border ofAlgeria.They are of mixedHassaniArabandSanhajiBerberdescent, as well asWest Africanand other indigenous populations.[9]

As with most peoples living in the Sahara, theSahrawi cultureis a mix of Arab and indigenous African elements.[9]Sahrawis are composed of many tribes and are largely speakers of theHassaniyadialect ofArabic.[10]

Etymology[edit]

TheArabicwordṢaḥrāwī(صحراوي) literally means "Inhabitant of the Desert". The wordSahrawiis derived from the Arabic wordṢaḥrā'(صحراء), meaning "desert". A man is called aSahrawi,and a woman is called aSahrawiya.In other languages it is pronounced in similar or different ways:

History[edit]

Early history[edit]

NomadicBerbers,mainly of theSenhaja/Zenagatribalconfederation, inhabited the areas now known asWestern Sahara,southernMorocco,Mauritaniaand southwesternAlgeria,beforeIslamarrived in the 8th century CE. It is not known when thecamelwas introduced to the region (probably in the first or second millennium BCE), but it revolutionized the traditional trade routes ofNorth Africa.Berber caravanstransportedsalt, gold, and slaves between North andWest Africa,and the control of trade routes became a major ingredient in the constant power struggles between various tribes and sedentary peoples. On more than one occasion, the Berber tribes of present-day Mauritania, Morocco and Western Sahara united behind religious leaders to sweep the surrounding governments from power, then founding principalities, dynasties, or even vast empires of their own. This was the case with theAlmoraviddynasty of Morocco andAndalusia,and severalemiratesin Mauritania.

In the 11th century, theBedouintribes of theBeni HilalandBeni Sulaymemigrated westwards from Egypt to theMaghrebregion. In the early 13th century, the YemeniMaqiltribes migrated westwards across the entirety ofArabiaand northern Africa, to finally settle around present-day Morocco. They were badly received by theZenata Berberdescendants of theMerinid dynasty,and among the tribes pushed out of the territory were theBeni Hassan.

This tribe entered the domains of theSanhaja,and over the following centuries imposed itself upon them, intermi xing with the population in the process. Berber attempts to shake off the rule of Arab warrior tribes occurred sporadically, but assimilation gradually won out, and after the failedChar Boubauprising (1644–74), the Berber tribes virtually without exception embraced Arab orMuslim cultureand even claim Arab heritage.[17]The Arabic dialect of theBeni Ḥassān,Hassaniya,remains the mother-tongue of Mauritania and Moroccan-controlledWestern Saharato this day, and is also spoken in southern Morocco and western Algeria, among affiliated tribes.Berbervocabulary and cultural traits remain common, despite the fact that many if not all of the Sahrawi/Moorish tribes today claim Arab ancestry; several are even claiming to be descendants ofMuhammad,so-calledsharifiantribes.

The modern day Sahrawis are a mixed ethnic group of Arabs, West Africans & diverse Berbers. The people inhabit the westernmost Sahara desert, in the area of modern Mauritania, Morocco, Western Sahara, and parts of Algeria. (Some tribes would also traditionally migrate into northern Mali and Niger, or even further along the Saharancaravanroutes.) As with most Saharan peoples, the tribes reflect a highly mixed heritage, combining Arab, and other influences, including ethnic and cultural characteristics found in many ethnic groups of theSahel.The latter were primarily acquired through mi xing withWolof,Soninkeand other populations of the southern Sahel, and through the acquisition of slaves by wealthier nomad families.

In pre-colonial times, the Sahara was generally consideredBlad Essibaor "the land of dissidence" by the Moroccan central government andSultan of MoroccoinFez,and by the authorities of theDeysofAlgiers.The governments of the pre-colonial Sahelian empires of Mali andSonghaiappear to have had a similar relationship with the tribal territories, which were at once the home of undisciplined raiding tribes and the main trade route for the Saharancaravan trade.Central governments had little control over the region, although theHassaniyatribes would occasionally extend "beya"or allegiance to prestigious rulers, to gain their political backing or, in some cases, as a religious ceremony. TheMoorishpopulations of what is today northern Mauritania established a number of emirates, claiming the loyalty of several different tribes and through them exercising semi-sovereignty over traditional grazing lands. This could be considered the closest thing to centralized government that was ever achieved by the Hassaniya tribes, but even these emirates were weak, conflict-ridden and rested more on the willing consent of the subject tribes than on any capacity to enforce loyalty.[18]

European colonialism[edit]

Modern distinctions drawn between the variousHassaniya-speaking Sahrawi-Moorishgroups are primarily political, but cultural differences dating from different colonial and post-colonial histories are also apparent. An important divider is whether the tribal confederations fell under French or Spanish colonial rule. France conquered most of North and West Africa largely during the late 19th century. This included Algeria and Mauritania, and, from 1912, Morocco. But Western Sahara and scattered minor parts of Morocco fell to Spain, and were namedSpanish Sahara(subdivided intoRío de OroandSaguia el-Hamra) andSpanish Moroccorespectively. These colonial intrusions brought the Muslim Saharan peoples under Christian European rule for the first time, and created lasting cultural and political divides between and within existing populations, as well as upsetting traditional balances of power in differing ways.

The Sahrawi-Moorish areas, then still undefined as to exact territorial boundaries, proved troublesome for the colonizers, just as they had for neighbouring dynasties in previous centuries. The political loyalty of these populations were first and foremost to their respective tribes, and supertribal allegiances and alliances would shift rapidly and unexpectedly. Their nomadic lifestyle made direct control over the territories hard to achieve, as did general lawlessness, an absence of prior central authority, and a widely held contempt for the kind of settled life that the colonizers sought to bring about. Centuries of intertribal warfare and raids for loot (ghazzu) guaranteed that the populations were well armed and versed in guerilla-style warfare. Tribes allied to hostile European powers would now also be considered fair game for cattle raids on those grounds, which tied the struggle against France and Spain into the traditional power play of the nomads, aggravating the internal struggles.

Uprisings and violent tribal clashes therefore took place with increasing frequency as European encroachment increased, and on occasion took the form of anti-colonial holy war, orJihad,as in the case of theMa al-'Aynaynuprising in the first years of the 20th century. It was not until the 1930s that Spain was able to finally subdue the interior of present-dayWestern Sahara,and then only with strong French military assistance. Mauritania's raiding Moors had been brought under control in the previous decades, partly through skilful exploitation by the French of traditional rivalries and social divisions between the tribes. In these encounters, the largeReguibat tribeproved especially resistant to the new rulers, and its fighters would regularly slip in out of French and Spanish territory, similarly exploiting the rivalries between European powers. The last major Reguibat raid took place in 1934, after which the Spanish authorities occupiedSmara,finally gaining control over the last unpatrolled border territories.

The Sahrawi-Moorish tribes remained largely nomadic until the early to mid-20th century, when Franco-Spanish rivalries (as well as disagreements between different wings of the French colonial regime) managed to impose rigid, if arbitrary, borders on the previously fluid Sahara. The wide-ranging grazing lands of the nomads were split apart, and their traditional economies, based on trans-Saharan caravan trade and raiding of each other and the northern and southern Sahel neighbors, were broken. Little attention was paid to existing tribal confederations and zones of influence when dividing up the Saharan interior.

Different colonial practices[edit]

French and Spanish colonial governments would gradually, and with varying force, impose their own systems of government and education over these territories, exposing the native populations to differing colonial experiences. The populations inAlgeriawere subjected to direct French rule, which was organized to enable the massive settlement of French and European immigrants. In Mauritania, they experienced a French non-settler colonial administration which, if light in its demands on the nomads, also deliberately overturned the existing social order, allying itself with lower-rankingmaraboutandzenagatribes against the powerful warrior clans of theHassaneArabs. In southern Morocco, France upheld indirect rule through thesultanatein some areas, whileSpainexercised direct administration in others.Spanish Saharawas treated first as a colony, and later as an overseas province, with gradually tightening political conditions, and, in later years, a rapid influx of Spanish settlers (makingSpaniardsabout 20% of the population in 1975). By the time of decolonization in 1950s–1970s, Sahrawi tribes in all these different territories had experienced roughly a generation or more of distinct experiences; often, however, their nomadic lifestyle had guaranteed that they were subjected to less interference than what sedentary populations experienced in the same areas.

Debate on pre-colonial allegiances[edit]

The period of colonization radically changed existing power structures, leaving a confused legacy of contradictory political affiliations, European-drawn borders with little resemblance to ethnic and tribal realities, and the foundations of modern political conflict.

For example, both sides in theWestern Sahara conflict(Morocco vs. thePolisario Front) draw heavily on colonial history to prove their version of reality. Proponents of theGreater Moroccoideology point to some Sahrawi tribes calling upon the Moroccan sultan, who until 1912 remained the last independent Islamic ruler of the area, for assistance against the Europeans (seeMa al-'Aynayn). Pro-independence Sahrawis, on the other hand, point out that such statements of allegiance were almost routinely given by various tribal leaders to create short-term alliances, and that other heads of tribes indeed similarly proclaimed allegiance to Spain, to France, to Mauritanian emirates, and indeed to each other; they argue that such arrangements always proved temporary, and that the tribal confederations always maintainedde factoindependence of central authority, and would even fight to maintain this independence.

TheInternational Court of Justiceissued arulingon the matter in 1975, stating that therehadexisted ties between the Moroccan sultan and some (mainly northerlyTekna) tribes in then-Spanish Sahara, but that these ties werenotsufficient to abrogateWestern Sahara'sright to self-determination. The same kind of ruling was issued with regard toMauritania,where the court found that there were indeed strong tribal and cultural links between the Sahrawis andMauritanianpopulations, including historical allegiance to some Moorish emirates, but that these were not ties of a state or government character, and did not constitute formal bonds of sovereignty. Thus, the court recommended the United Nations to continue to pursue self-determination for the Sahrawis, enabling them to choose for themselves whether they wanted Spanish Sahara to turn into an independent state, or to be annexed to Morocco or Mauritania.

Decolonisation attempts[edit]

Further information:Decolonisation of Africa

The Western Sahara conflict[edit]

Main article:Western Sahara conflict

The area today referred to as Western Sahara remains, according to the United Nations, one of the world's last remaining majornon-self-governing territories.Morocco controls most of the territory as itsSouthern Provinces,and while recognized by the United States,[19]the legality is disputed militarily by the Polisario Front, an Algerian-backed movement claiming independence for the territory as theSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic(SADR). Since 1991, there has been a cease-fire between Morocco and Polisario, butdisturbancesin Moroccan-held territories as well as the ongoing dispute over the legal status of the territory guarantees continuedUnited Nationsinvolvement and occasional international attention to the issue.

The Polisario Front[edit]

Flag of theSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic,apartially-recognizedSahrawi state, used by the Polisario Front
Main article:Polisario Front

The Polisario Front is the Western Sahara's national liberation movement, fighting for the independence of the Western Sahara since 1973—originally against Spanish rule; after 1975, against Mauritania and Morocco; since 1979, against Morocco only. The organization is based in Algeria, where it is responsible for theTindoufrefugee camps. The organization has maintained a cease-fire with Morocco since 1991 (seeSettlement Plan), but continues to strive for the territory's independence as theSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic(SADR) through peaceful negotiations. The Polisario Front restricts its claims to the colonially-defined Western Sahara, holding no claim to, for example, the Sahrawi-populatedTarfaya Stripin Morocco, or any part ofMauritania.Since 1979, the Polisario Front has been recognized by theUnited Nationsas the representative of the people of Western Sahara.[20]

Demographics[edit]

Ethnic background: Berbers and Arabs[edit]

Group of Saharawi women.

As described above, theHassaniyaspeaking tribes are ofArabian,Beni Hassandescent, who fused with the dominantSanhaja Berbertribes, as well asBlack Africanand otherindigenouspopulations (e.g. indigenousSoninkespeaking groups). Even though cultural arabization of the Berber people was thorough, some elements of Berber identity remain.

Some tribes, such as the largeReguibat,have a Berber background but have since been thoroughly arabized; others, such as theOulad Delim,are considered descendants of theBeni Hassan,even though intermarriage with other tribes and former slaves have occurred; a few, such as theTekna tribal confederation,have retained some Berber dialect of the area. Often, though not in the case of the Tekna, the Berber-Arab elements of a tribe's cultural heritage reflects social stratification. In traditional Moorish-Sahrawi society, Arab tribes of the Tekna confederation claimed a role as rulers and protectors of the disarmed weaker Berber tribes of the Takna confederation. Thus, the warrior tribes and nobility would be Arab.

However, most tribes, regardless of their mixed heritage, tend to claim some form of Arab ancestry, as this has been key to achieving social status. Many (the so-calledchorfatribes) will also claim descendancy from theIslamic prophetMuhammad.In any case, no tribal identity is cut in stone, and over the centuries a great deal of intermarriage and tribal re-affiliation has occurred to blur former ethnic/cultural lines; groups have often seamlessly re-identified to higher status identities, after achieving the military or economic strength to defeat former rulers. This was, for example, the case of the largest of the Sahrawi tribes, theReguibat.A Berber-descendedzawiya(scholarly) tribe who in the 18th century took upcamelnomadism and warrior traditions, they simultaneously took on more and more of anArab identity,reflecting their new position alongside the traditional warrior castes of Arab Hassane origin, such as the Oulad Delim and the Arabic-speaking tribes of the Tekna confederation.

Social and ethnic hierarchy[edit]

Generally speaking, the Hassaniya populations were (or are) divided into several groups, of different social status.[21]

Saharawi woman.

At the peak of society were thearistocratic"warrior" lineages orclans,theHassane,supposed descendants of the Beni Hassan Arab tribe (cf.Oulad Delim). Below them stood the "scholarly" or "clerical" lineages. These were calledmaraboutorzawiyatribes (cf.Oulad Tidrarine). The latter designation the preferred one in among the Western Sahara-centered tribes, who would also almost invariably claimchorfastatus to enhance their religious credibility. The zawiya tribes were protected by Hassan overlords in exchange for their religious services and payment of thehorma,a tributary tax incattleor goods; while they were in a sense exploited, the relationship was often more or less symbiotic. Under both these groups, but still part of the Western Sahara society, stood theznagatribes—tribal groups labouring in demeaning occupations, such asfishermen(cf.Imraguen), as well as peripheral semi-tribal groups working in the same fields (among them the "professional" castes,malleminandigawen). All these groups were considered to be among thebidangrouping.

Below them ranked servile groups known asHaratin,according to some sources descendants of the earlier pre-Arab populations. (Note that "Haratin", a term of obscure origin, has a different meaning in the Berber regions of Morocco.) They often lived serving affiliatedbidanfamilies, and as such formed part of the tribe, not tribes of their own. Below them came the slaves themselves, who were owned individually or in family groups, and could hope at best to be freed and rise to the status of Haratin. Rich bidan families would normally own a few slaves at the most, as nomadic societies have less use of slave labour than sedentary societies; however, in some cases, slaves were used to workoasisplantations, farmingdates,diggingwellsetc.[citation needed]

An important reference on Sahrawi population ethnography is the work of Spanish anthropologistJulio Caro Baroja,who in 1952–53 spent several months among native tribes of theSpanish Sahara.He published a 1955 book on the subject.[22]

Population[edit]

According to the Ethnologue database, there were more than three millionHassaniyaspeakers in 2006, of whom 2.7 million resided in Mauritania.[23]The number of Hassaniya speakers identifying asSahrawiin the modern political sense is unknown, and estimates are hotly contested by partisans in the Western Sahara conflict. Most estimates however center around 200,000 to 400,000.[citation needed]These populations are centered in southern Morocco, Western Sahara, and in theTindouf Provinceof Algeria, where large number ofrefugeesfrom Western Sahara are located.

Languages[edit]

Main article:Hassaniya Arabic

Sahrawis' native language is theHassānīya,a variety of Arabic originally spoken by theBeni HassanArabian tribes of the WesternSahara.It has almost completely replaced the Berber languages originally spoken in this region. Though clearly a western dialect, Hassānīya is relatively distant from other North African variants of Arabic. Its geographical location exposed it to influence fromZenagaandWolof.There are several dialects of Hassaniya; the primary differences among them are phonetics. Today Hassaniya is spoken in south-western Algeria, northern Mali, Mauritania, southern-Morocco and Western Sahara. (Mauritania has the biggest concentration of speakers)[citation needed].Some Sahrawis speakTashelhitand/orMoroccan Arabicas a second language due to interaction with neighboring populations.

Modern Standard Arabicand theAmazigh language(a standardized version of Moroccan Berber languages) are the official languages of the Moroccan administered part of Western Sahara. WhileStandard Arabicis the only official language inMauritania,Algeriaand theSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.

The current Moroccan constitution (adopted in July 2011) mentions, in its 5th article, the Hassaniya language and recommends its preservation as a cultural heritage of Morocco.[24]

Due to the past colonization ofWestern SaharaandCape Jubyby Spain, Spanish is spoken as a lingua franca by most of the Sahrawis, especially among the Sahrawi diaspora, with theSahrawi Press Service,official news service of theSahrawi Arab Democratic Republic,being available in Spanish since 2001[25]and theSahara Film Festival,Western Sahara's only film festival[citation needed],showing mainly Spanish-language films.

The refugees[edit]

Main article:Sahrawi refugee camps

After theMadrid Accordswhich transferred administration of theSpanish Saharato Mauritania and Morocco, and Morocco claimed souvereignty over the territories, dismissing a judgement of the International Court of Justice reaffirming the right of the Sahrawi people to self-determination, from late 1975 an exodus of refugees fled the violence that ensued.[26]Substantial numbers ended up in thePolisario Frontmovement's base areas in theAlgerianSahara, whererefugee campswere set up in theTindouf Province,and a smaller number in camps inMauritania.Thecamps in Tindoufwere named after towns in the Western Sahara (Awserd, Laayoune, Smara and Dakhla).[27]

Saharawi refugee camp inTindouf Province,Algeria

As of January 2018, the number of Sahrawi refugees living in the five camps in Tindouf is estimated about 174.000, of whom 125,000 were entitled to food and nutrition assistance by UNHCR and 90,000 individuals regarded "most vulnerable refugees".[3]The Moroccan government has contended that the figure is much lower, around 45,000 to 50,000, and that these people are kept in the refugee camps against their will by Polisario.[28]

Mauritania housed as of 2009 about 26,000 Sahrawi refugees, classified by UNHCR as "people in a refugee-like situation". Many of them moved back and forth from the camps in Tindouf, Algeria.[5]

Additionally, between 3,000 and 12,000 Sahrawis live in Spain, their former colonizer.[6][7]

In 2018, thirty Sahrawi refugees died in anair crash of Algerian Air Force Il-76.They had been visiting Algiers for various medical and bureaucratic reasons. Sahrawis from the refugee camps are regularly provided with free flights in Algerianmilitary transport aircraft.[29]

Culture[edit]

Main article:Culture of Western Sahara
See also:Music of Western SaharaandMauritania § Culture

Religion[edit]

Religiously,the Sahrawis areSunniMuslimsof theMalikirite or school. Historically, religious practice has been pragmatically adapted to nomad life and local tradition. Also, since the late medieval period, variousSufiTuruq(brotherhoods or orders), have played an important role in popular religious practice; the most important among these are theQadiriyyaandTijaniyya.Further, among the Hassaniya tribes, certain lineages reputed to be descended from Mohammad, thechorfa,have played an important role in intertribal religious society.[30]

Tribalism[edit]

See article ontribalismand thelist of Sahrawi tribes.

Thetribewas the historical basis of social and political organisation among the Hassaniya-speaking tribes of the Sahara, well into the colonial and arguably post-colonial period. Traditionally, Hassaniya Sahrawi society was completely tribal, organized in a complex web of shifting alliances and tribal confederations, with no stable and centralized governing authority.

Lawmaking, conflict resolution and central decision-making within the tribe, was carried out by theDjema'a,(Arabic, gathering) a gathering of elected elders (shaykhs) and religious scholars. Occasionally, larger tribal gatherings could be held in the form of the Ait Arbein (Group of Forty)[citation needed],which would handle supratribal affairs such as common defence of the territory or commondiplomacy.During colonial times, Spain attempted to assume some of the legitimacy of these traditional institutions by creating its own Djema'a, a state-run political association that supported its claims to the territory.

Notable people[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^"Africa:: Western Sahara - The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency".cia.gov.17 November 2020. Archived fromthe originalon 17 November 2020.Retrieved25 May2021.
  2. ^Shefte, Whitney (6 January 2015)."Western Sahara's stranded refugees consider renewal of Morocco conflict".The Guardian.
  3. ^abSahrawi Refugees in Tindouf, Algeria: Total In‐Camp Population.UNHCR, March 2018
  4. ^Morocco overview-Minorities-SaharawisArchived19 January 2013 at theWayback MachineWorld Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples
  5. ^abWorld Refugee Survey 2009 - Mauritania.USCRI, 17 June 2009.Archived
  6. ^ab"La policía detuvo a saharauis en Jaén al pedir la residencia".El País.16 June 2010.Retrieved3 July2010.
  7. ^abCarmen Gómez Martín.La migracion saharaui en Espana. Estrategias de visibilidad en el tercer tiempo del exilio.Retrieved21 August2012.Page 52, Note 88: "Actualmente es imposible aportar cifras exactas sobre el número de saharauis instalados en el país, ya que no existen datos oficiales elaborados por la administración española o por las autoridades saharauis. A través de la información recogida durante el trabajo de campo de la tesis se calculó su número entre 10.000–12.000 personas, instaladas de preferencia en la costa mediterránea (Cataluña, Comunidad Valenciana, Murcia y Andalucía), Islas Canarias, País Vasco y Extremadura"(in Spanish)
  8. ^"Western Sahara: Kitesurfing in the Dakhla Danger Zone".BBC. 25 December 2016.
  9. ^abatlasofhumanity."Sahrawi People".Atlas Of Humanity.Retrieved25 June2023.
  10. ^Julio, Javi (21 November 2015)."Desert schools bloom in Sahrawi refugee camps – in pictures".the Guardian.Retrieved4 June2017.
  11. ^"Ufficio delle pubblicazioni — Manuale interistituzionale di convenzioni redazionali — Allegato A5 — Elenco degli Stati, dei territori e delle monete".europa.eu.
  12. ^S.A., Priberam Informática."Significado / definição de saarauí no Dicionário Priberam da Língua Portuguesa".Priberam.pt.Retrieved5 June2017.
  13. ^"Rajoy viaja para Rabat para manter boas relações com Marrocos | VEJA".Veja.abril.br.17 January 2012.Retrieved5 June2017.
  14. ^"No meio do caminho havia a Venezuela – Internacional – Estadão".Internacional.estadao.br.Retrieved5 June2017.
  15. ^"União Africana —".26 May 2015. Archived from the original on 26 May 2015.Retrieved2 April2018.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  16. ^"Angola: Luanda reafirma apoio à causa do povo saarauí – Inforpress – Sapo Notícias".Noticias.sapo.cv.Archived fromthe originalon 10 August 2017.Retrieved5 June2017.
  17. ^"Archived copy".lcweb2.loc.gov.Archived fromthe originalon 10 January 2009.Retrieved15 January2022.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  18. ^[1]Archived7 August 2006 at theWayback Machine
  19. ^"Proclamation on Recognizing The Sovereignty Of The Kingdom Of Morocco Over The Western Sahara".US Embassy.Retrieved9 April2023.
  20. ^ODS Team."ODS HOME PAGE"(PDF).un.org.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 21 September 2012.
  21. ^"About this Collection – Country Studies | Digital Collections | Library of Congress".The Library of Congress.Retrieved5 June2017.
  22. ^Julio Caro Baroja,Estudios Saharianos,Instituto de Estudios Africanos, Madrid, 1955. Re-edited 1990: Ediciones Júcar.ISBN84-334-7027-2.Reedited 2009: Ediciones Calamar.ISBN978-84-96235-28-1.
  23. ^Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009.Ethnologue:Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International.
  24. ^Article 5 of the 2011 Moroccan constitution
  25. ^"Quienes somos?".spsrasd.info.Archived fromthe originalon 25 September 2011.
  26. ^ACAPS Briefing Note: Algeria: Sahrawi refugees in Tindouf,19 Jan 2022 (See pdf)
  27. ^National Geographic Magazine, December 2008
  28. ^Country of origin information report: Algeria,p. 143. UK Border Agency, 30 Sep 2008
  29. ^"Argelia: Mueren al menos 257 personas al estrellarse un avión militar en Boufarik".RTVE.es(in European Spanish). 11 April 2018.Retrieved12 April2018.
  30. ^Western Sahara?30-days.net

Sources[edit]

  • Hodges, Tony (1983),Western Sahara: The Roots of a Desert War,Lawrence Hill Books (ISBN0-88208-152-7)
  • Jensen, Erik (2005),Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate,International Peace Studies (ISBN1-58826-305-3)
  • Mercer, John (1976),Spanish Sahara,George Allen & Unwid Ltd (ISBN0-04-966013-6)
  • Norris, H.T. (1986),The Arab Conquest of the Western Sahara,Longman Publishing Group (ISBN0-582-75643-X)
  • Pazzanita, Anthony G. and Hodges, Tony (1994),Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara,Scarecrow Press (ISBN0-8108-2661-5)
  • Shelley, Toby (2004),Endgame in the Western Sahara: What Future for Africa's Last Colony?,Zed Books (ISBN1-84277-341-0)
  • Thobhani, Akbarali (2002),Western Sahara Since 1975 Under Moroccan Administration: Social, Economic, and Political Transformation,Edwin Mellen Press (ISBN0-7734-7173-1)
  • Thompson, Virginia and Adloff, Richard (1980),The Western Saharans. Background to Conflict,Barnes & Noble Books (ISBN0-389-20148-0)

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related toPeople of Western Sahara.
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