Shaivism

Shaivism

Shiva(above) is the primary God in Shaivism.

Shaivism(/ˈʃaɪvɪzəm/;Sanskrit:शैवसम्प्रदायः,romanized:Śaivasampradāyaḥa) is one of the majorHindu traditions,which worshipsShivaas theSupreme Being.One of the largest Hindu denominations,it incorporates many sub-traditions ranging from devotionaldualistic theismsuch asShaiva Siddhantatoyoga-orientatedmonisticnon-theism such asKashmiri Shaivism.It considers both theVedasand theAgamatexts as important sources of theology.According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, Shaivism is thesecond-largest Hindu sect,constituting about 252 million or 26.6% of Hindus.

Shaivism developed as an amalgam of pre-Vedic religions and traditions derived from the southernTamilShaiva Siddhantatraditions and philosophies, which were assimilated in the non-Vedic Shiva-tradition.In the process ofSanskritisationand theformation of Hinduism,starting in the last centuriesBCE,these pre-Vedic traditions became aligned with the Vedic deityRudraand other Vedic deities, incorporating the non-Vedic Shiva-traditions into theVedic-Brahmanical fold.

Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE, rapidly becoming the dominant religious tradition of many Hindu kingdoms.It arrived inSoutheastAsia shortly thereafter, leading to the construction of thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving withBuddhismin these regions.

Shaivite theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, and destroyer to being the same as theAtman(Self) within oneself and every living being. It is closely related toShaktism,and some Shaivas worship in both Shiva and Shakti temples.It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, and like other Hindu traditions encourages an individual to discover and be one with Shiva within.The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivas or Shaivites.

Etymology and nomenclature

Shiva (śiva,Sanskrit:शिव) literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.As a proper name, it means "The Auspicious One".

The word Shiva is used as an adjective in theRig Veda,as an epithet for severalRigvedic deities,includingRudra.The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one", this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature.The term evolved from the VedicRudra-Shivato the nounShivain the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".

The Sanskrit wordśaivaorshaivameans "relating to the god Shiva",while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism.

Overview

The reverence for Shiva is one of the pan-Hindu traditions found widely across South Asia predominantly in Southern India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal.While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex religion and a way of life, with a diversity of ideas onspiritualityand traditions. It has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic, or humanist.

Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism with a theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in philosophy.Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools ranging fromnondualism,dualism,andmixed schools.

Origins and history

The development of various schools of Shaivism from early worship of Rudra.

The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars, as it is an amalgam of pre-Vedic cults and traditions and Vedic culture.

Indus Valley Civilisation

Main article:Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization

The "Pashupati" seal from theIndus Valley civilisation.

Some trace the origins to theIndus Valley civilization,which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE.Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that somewhat appears like Shiva. Of these is thePashupati seal,which early scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals, and with horns.This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals,Sanskritpaśupati)seal has been interpreted by these scholars as a prototype of Shiva.Gavin Floodcharacterizes these views as "speculative", saying that it is not clear from the seal if the figure has three faces, or is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure.

Other scholars state that the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered, and the interpretation of the Pashupati seal is uncertain. According to Srinivasan, the proposal that it is proto-Shiva may be a case of projecting "later practices into archeological findings".Similarly, Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bull interpretation is likely more accurate.

Vedic elements

TheRigveda(~1500–1200 BCE) has the earliest clear mention ofRudra( "Roarer" ) in its hymns 2.33, 1.43 and 1.114. The text also includes aSatarudriya,an influential hymn with embedded hundred epithets for Rudra, that is cited in many medieval era Shaiva texts as well as recited in major Shiva temples ofHindusin contemporary times. Yet, the Vedic literature only present scriptural theology, but does not attest to the existence of Shaivism.

Emergence of Shaivism

See also:RudraandShiva

Kushancoin ofVima Kadphises(2nd century CE), with a possible Shiva, holding atrident,inithyphallicstateand next to abull,his mount, as in Shaivism.The deity was described by the later Kushans in their coinage as "Oesho",a possibly kushan deity.

According toGavin Flood,"the formation of Śaiva traditions as we understand them begins to occur during the period from 200 BC to 100 AD."Shiva was originally probably not a Brahmanical god,but eventually came to be incorporated into the Brahmanical fold.The pre-Vedic Shiva acquired a growing prominence as its cult assimilated numerous "ruder faiths" and their mythologies,and the Epics and Puranas preserve pre-Vedic myths and legends of these traditions assimilated by the Shiva-cult.Shiva's growing prominence was facilitated by identification with a number of Vedic deities, such asPurusha,Rudra,Agni,Indra,Prajāpati,Vāyu,among others.The followers of Shiva were gradually accepted into the Brahmanical fold, becoming allowed to recite some of the Vedic hymns.

Patanjali'sMahābhāṣya,dated to the 2nd century BCE, mentions the termShiva-bhagavatain section 5.2.76. Patanjali, while explaining Panini's rules of grammar, states that this term refers to a devotee clad in animal skins and carrying anayah sulikah(iron spear, trident lance)as an icon representing his god.

TheShvetashvatara Upanishadmentions terms such as Rudra, Shiva, and Maheshwaram,but its interpretation as a theistic or monistic text of Shaivism is disputed.The dating of theShvetashvatarais also in dispute, but it is likely a lateUpanishad.

TheMahabharatamentions Shaiva ascetics, such as in chapters 4.13 and 13.140.Other evidence that is possibly linked to the importance of Shaivism in ancient times are in epigraphy and numismatics, such as in the form of prominent Shiva-like reliefs onKushan Empireera gold coins. However, this is controversial, as an alternate hypothesis for these reliefs is based onZoroastrianOesho.According to Flood, coins dated to the ancient Greek, Saka and Parthian kings who ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent after the arrival ofAlexander the Greatalso show Shiva iconography; however, this evidence is weak and subject to competing inferences.

In the early centuries of the common era is the first clear evidence ofPāśupata Shaivism.The inscriptions found in the Himalayan region, such as those in the Kathmandu valley ofNepalsuggest that Shaivism (particularly Pāśupata) was established in this region by the 5th century, during the lateGuptasera. These inscriptions have been dated by modern techniques to between 466 and 645 CE.

Puranic Shaivism

Shiva (middle) is the supreme being of Shaivism, accompanied by his son Ganesha (left) and consort Parvati (right). Painting by Raja Ravi Varma.

During theGupta Empire(c. 320–500 CE) the genre ofPurāṇaliterature developed in India, and many of these Puranas contain extensive chapters on Shaivism – along withVaishnavism,Shaktism,Smarta Traditionsof Brahmins and other topics – suggesting the importance of Shaivism by then.

The most important Shaiva Purāṇas of this period include theShiva Purāṇa,theSkanda Purāṇa,and theLinga Purāṇa.

Post-Gupta development

Shiva withTrisula,worshipped inCentral Asia.Penjikent,Uzbekistan,7th–8th century CE.Hermitage Museum.

Most of the Gupta kings, beginning withChandragupta II(Vikramaditya) (375–413 CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas orBhagavataVaishnavasand had been ardent promoters ofVaishnavism.But following theHunainvasions, especially those of theAlchon Hunscirca 500 CE, theGupta Empiredeclined and fragmented, ultimately collapsing completely, with the effect of discrediting Vaishnavism, the religion it had been so ardently promoting.The newly arising regional powers in central and northern India, such as theAulikaras,theMaukharis,theMaitrakas,theKalacurisor theVardhanaspreferred adopting Shaivism instead, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship ofShiva.Vaishnavism remained strong mainly in the territories which had not been affected by these events:South IndiaandKashmir.

In the early 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrimXuanzang(Huen Tsang) visited India and wrote a memoir in Chinese that mentions the prevalence of Shiva temples all over NorthIndian subcontinent,including in theHindu Kushregion such asNuristan.Between the 5th and 11th century CE, major Shaiva temples had been built in central, southern and eastern regions of the subcontinent, including those atBadami cave temples,Aihole,Elephanta Caves,Ellora Caves(Kailasha, cave 16),Khajuraho,Bhuvaneshwara, Chidambaram, Madurai, and Conjeevaram.

Major scholars of competing Hindu traditions from the second half of the 1st millennium CE, such asAdi Shankaraof Advaita Vedanta andRamanujaof Vaishnavism, mention several Shaiva sects, particularly the four groups: Pashupata, Lakulisha, tantric Shaiva and Kapalika. The description is conflicting, with some texts stating the tantric, puranik and Vedic traditions of Shaivism to be hostile to each other while others suggest them to be amicable sub-traditions. Some texts state that Kapalikas reject the Vedas and are involved in extreme experimentation,while others state the Shaiva sub-traditions revere the Vedas but are non-Puranik.

South India

Shaivism was the predominant tradition in South India, co-existing with Buddhism and Jainism, before the VaishnavaAlvarslaunched theBhakti movementin the 7th century, and influential Vedanta scholars such asRamanujadeveloped a philosophical and organizational framework that helped Vaishnavism expand. Though both traditions of Hinduism have ancient roots, given their mention in the epics such as theMahabharata,Shaivism flourished in South India much earlier.

The Mantramarga of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, provided a template for the later though independent and highly influential Pancaratrika treatises of Vaishnavism. This is evidenced in Hindu texts such as theIsvarasamhita,Padmasamhita,andParamesvarasamhita.

The 7th to 8th-centuryShore Templeat Mahabalipuram is a UNESCO World Heritage site. It features thousands of Shaivism-related sculptures.

Along with the Himalayan region stretching from Kashmir through Nepal, the Shaiva tradition in South India has been one of the largest sources of preserved Shaivism-related manuscripts from ancient and medieval India.The region was also the source of Hindu arts, temple architecture, and merchants who helped spread Shaivism into southeast Asia in early 1st millennium CE.

There are tens of thousands of Hindu temples where Shiva is either the primary deity or reverentially included in anthropomorphic or aniconic form (lingam, orsvayambhu).Numerous historic Shaiva temples have survived in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.Gudimallamis the oldest known lingam and has been dated to between 3rd to 1st-century BCE. It is a carved five feet high stone lingam with an anthropomorphic image of Shiva on one side. This ancient lingam is inChittoordistrict of Andhra Pradesh.

Southeast Asia

An image collage of 1st millennium CE Shaivism icons and temples from Southeast Asia (top left): Shiva in yoga pose, Nandi,Prambanantemple, Yoni-Linga andHindu templelayout.

Shaivism arrived in a major way in southeast Asia from south India, and to much lesser extent into China and Tibet from the Himalayan region. It co-developed with Buddhism in this region, in many cases.For example, in theCaves of the Thousand Buddhas,a few caves include Shaivism ideas.The epigraphical and cave arts evidence suggest that Shaiva Mahesvara and Mahayana Buddhism had arrived in Indo-China region in theFunanperiod, that is in the first half of the 1st millennium CE.In Indonesia, temples at archaeological sites and numerous inscription evidence dated to the early period (400 to 700 CE), suggest that Shiva was the highest god. This co-existence of Shaivism and Buddhism in Java continued through about 1500 CE when both Hinduism and Buddhism were replaced with Islam,and persists today in the province of Bali.

The Shaivist and Buddhist traditions overlapped significantly in southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia, Cambodia, and Vietnam between the 5th and the 15th century. Shaivism and Shiva held the paramount position in ancient Java, Sumatra, Bali, and neighboring islands, though the sub-tradition that developed creatively integrated more ancient beliefs that pre-existed.In the centuries that followed, the merchants and monks who arrived in Southeast Asia, brought Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Buddhism, and these developed into a syncretic, mutually supporting form of traditions.

Indonesia

InBalinese Hinduism,Dutch ethnographers further subdividedSiwa (shaivaites)Sampradaya"into five – Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher caste Brahmana men with lower caste women.

Beliefs and practices

Shaivism centers around Shiva, but it has many sub-traditions whose theological beliefs and practices vary significantly. They range from dualistic devotional theism to monistic meditative discovery of Shiva within oneself. Within each of these theologies, there are two sub-groups. One sub-group is called Vedic-Puranic, who use the terms such as "Shiva, Mahadeva, Maheshvara and others" synonymously, and they use iconography such as theLinga,Nandi,Trishula(trident), as well as anthropomorphic statues of Shiva in temples to help focus their practices.Another sub-group is called esoteric, which fuses it with abstractSivata(feminine energy) orSivatva(neuter abstraction), wherein the theology integrates the goddess (Shakti) and the god (Shiva) with Tantra practices and Agama teachings. There is a considerable overlap between these Shaivas and the Shakta Hindus.

Vedic, Puranik, and esoteric Shaivism

Scholars such as Alexis Sanderson discuss Shaivism in three categories: Vedic, Puranik and non-Puranik (esoteric, tantric).They place Vedic and Puranik together given the significant overlap, while placing Non-Puranik esoteric sub-traditions as a separate category.

Two female Shaiva ascetics (18th century painting)

• Vedic-Puranik.The majority within Shaivism follow the Vedic-Puranik traditions. They revere the Vedas and the Puranas and hold beliefs that span from dualistic theism, such as ShivaBhakti(devotionalism), to monistic non-theism dedicated to yoga and a meditative lifestyle. This sometimes involves renouncing household life for monastic pursuits of spirituality.The Yoga practice is particularly pronounced in nondualistic Shaivism, with the practice refined into a methodology such as four-foldupaya:being pathless (anupaya, iccha-less, desire-less), being divine (sambhavopaya,jnana,knowledge-full), being energy (saktopaya,kriya,action-full) and being individual (anavopaya).
• Non-Puranik.These are esoteric, minority sub-traditions wherein devotees are initiated (dīkṣa) into a specific cult they prefer. Their goals vary, ranging from liberation in current life (mukti) to seeking pleasures in higher worlds (bhukti). Their means also vary, ranging from meditativeatimargaor "outer higher path" versus those whose means are recitation-drivenmantras.Theatimargasub-traditions include Pashupatas and Lakula. According to Sanderson, the Pashupatashave the oldest heritage, likely from the 2nd century CE, as evidenced by ancient Hindu texts such as theShanti Parvabook of theMahabharataepic.The tantric sub-tradition in this category is traceable to post-8th to post-11th century depending on the region of Indian subcontinent, paralleling the development of Buddhist and Jain tantra traditions in this period.Among these are the dualistic Shaiva Siddhanta and Bhairava Shaivas (non-Saiddhantika), based on whether they recognize any value in Vedic orthopraxy.These sub-traditions cherish secrecy, special symbolic formulae, initiation by a teacher and the pursuit ofsiddhi(special powers). Some of these traditions also incorporate theistic ideas, elaborate geometric yantra with embedded spiritual meaning, mantras and rituals.

Shaivism versus other Hindu traditions

Shaivism sub-traditions subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in some aspects and differ in others. These traditions compare with Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism as follows:

Comparison of Shaivism with other traditions

	Shaiva Traditions	Vaishnava Traditions	Shakta Traditions	Smarta Traditions	References
Scriptural authority	Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas	Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas	Vedas and Upanishads	Vedas and Upanishads
Supreme deity	Shiva	Vishnu	Devi	None (ConsidersParabrahmanto be so)
Creator	Shiva	Vishnu	Devi	Brahman principle
Avatar	Minor	Key concept	Significant	Minor
Monasticlife	Recommends	Accepts	Accepts	Recommends
Rituals,Bhakti	Affirms	Affirms	Affirms	Optional
AhimsaandVegetarianism	Recommends,Optional	Affirms	Optional	Recommends, Optional
Free will,Maya,Karma	Affirms	Affirms	Affirms	Affirms
Metaphysics	Brahman(Shiva),Atman(Self)	Brahman (Vishnu), Atman	Brahman (Devi), Atman	Brahman, Atman
Epistemology (Pramana)	1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony 4. Self-evident	1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony	1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony	1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Comparison and analogy 4. Postulation, derivation 5. Negative/cognitive proof 6. Reliable testimony
Philosophy	Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita	Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita	Shakti-advaita	Advaita, qualified advaita
Liberation (Soteriology)	Jivanmukta, Charya-Kriyā-Yoga-Jnana	Videhamukti, Yoga, champions householder life	Bhakti, Tantra, Yoga	Jivanmukta, Advaita, Yoga, champions monastic life

Texts

Shaiva manuscripts that have survived
(post-8th century)

Nepal and Himalayan region = 140,000
South India = 8,600
Others (Devanagiri) = 2,000
Bali and SE Asia = Many

—Alexis Sanderson,The Saiva Literature

Over its history, Shaivism has been nurtured by numerous texts ranging from scriptures to theological treatises. These include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Agamas, and theBhasya.According to Gavin Flood – a professor at Oxford University specializing in Shaivism and phenomenology, Shaiva scholars developed a sophisticated theology, in its diverse traditions.Among the notable and influential commentaries bydvaita(dualistic) theistic Shaivism scholars were the 8th century Sadyajoti, the 10th century Ramakantha, 11th century Bhojadeva.The dualistic theology was challenged by the numerous scholars ofadvaita(nondualistic, monistic) Shaivism persuasion such as the 8th/9th century Vasugupta,the 10th century Abhinavagupta and 11th century Kshemaraja, particularly the scholars of the Pratyabhijna, Spanda and Kashmiri Shaivism schools of theologians.

Vedas and Principal Upanishads

The Vedas and Upanishads are shared scriptures ofHinduism,while the Agamas are sacred texts of specific sub-traditions.The surviving Vedic literature can be traced to the 1st millennium BCE and earlier, while the surviving Agamas can be traced to 1st millennium of the common era.The Vedic literature, in Shaivism, is primary and general, while Agamas are special treatise. In terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Mariasusai Dhavamony, will be acceptable to the Shaivas.According to David Smith, "a key feature of the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta, one might almost say its defining feature, is the claim that its source lies in the Vedas as well as the Agamas, in what it calls the Vedagamas".This school's view can be summed as,

The Veda is the cow, the true Agama its milk.

— Umapati, Translated by David Smith

TheŚvetāśvataraUpanishad(400–200 BCE)is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.

Shaiva minor Upanishads

Shaivism-inspired scholars authored 14 Shiva-focussed Upanishads that are called the Shaiva Upanishads.These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads in theMuktikāUpanishadic corpus of Hindu literature.The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE, while the last ones in the late medieval era.

The Shaiva Upanishads present diverse ideas, ranging frombhakti-style theistic dualism themes to a synthesis of Shaiva ideas with Advaitic (nondualism), Yoga, Vaishnava and Shakti themes.

Shaivism Upanishads

Shaiva Upanishad	Composition date	Topics	Reference
Kaivalya Upanishad	1st millennium BCE	Shiva, Atman, Brahman,Sannyasa,Self-knowledge
Atharvashiras Upanishad	1st millennium BCE	Rudra, Atman, Brahman, Om, monism
Atharvashikha Upanishad	1st millennium BCE	Shiva, Om, Brahman, chanting, meditation
Brihajjabala Upanishad	Late medieval, post-12th century	Shiva, sacred ash, prayer beads,Tripundratilaka
Kalagni Rudra Upanishad	Unknown	Meaning of Tripundra (three lines tilaka), Ritual Shaivism
Dakshinamurti Upanishad	Unknown	Dakshinamurti as an aspect of Shiva, Atman, monism
Sharabha Upanishad	Unknown	Shiva as Sharabha
Akshamalika Upanishad	Late medieval, post-12th century CE	Rosary, japa, mantras, Om, Shiva, symbolism in Shaivism iconography
Rudrahridaya Upanishad	Unknown	Rudra-Uma, Male-Female are inseparable, nondualism
Bhasmajabala Upanishad	Late medieval, post-12th century	Shiva, sacred ash, body art, iconography, why rituals andVaranasiare important
Rudrakshajabala Upanishad	After the 10th century	Shiva, Bhairava, Rudraksha beads and mantra recitation
Ganapati Upanishad	16th or 17th century	Ganesha, Shiva, Brahman, Atman, Om, Satcitananda
Pancabrahma Upanishad	About 7th century CE	Shiva, Sadashiva, nondualism,So'ham,Atman, Brahman, self-knowledge
Jabali Upanishad	unknown	Shiva, Pashupata theology, significance of ash and body art

Shaiva Agamas

The Agama texts of Shaivism are another important foundation of Shaivism theology.These texts include Shaivacosmology,epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices, four kinds of yoga, mantras, meanings and manuals for Shaiva temples, and other elements of practice.These canonical texts exist inSanskritand in south Indian languages such asTamil.

The Agamas present a diverse range of philosophies, ranging fromtheistic dualismto absolutemonism.In Shaivism, there are ten dualistic (dvaita) Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism (bhedabheda) Agama texts and sixty four monism (advaita) Agama texts.The Bhairava Shastras are monistic, while Shiva Shastras are dualistic.

The Agama texts of Shaiva and Vaishnava schools are premised on existence ofAtman(Self) and the existence of an Ultimate Reality (Brahman) which is considered identical to Shiva in Shaivism.The texts differ in the relation between the two. Some assert the dualistic philosophy of the individual Self and Ultimate Reality being different, while others state a Oneness between the two.Kashmir Shaiva Agamas posit absolute oneness, that is God (Shiva) is within man, God is within every being, God is present everywhere in the world including all non-living beings, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and God.While Agamas present diverse theology, in terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Dhavamony, has been acceptable to the Shaivas.

Traditions

Kauai Hindu monasteryinKauai Islandin Hawaii is the only Hindu Monastery(shaivaite) in the United States.

Shaivism is ancient, and over time it developed many sub-traditions. These broadly existed and are studied in three groups: theistic dualism, nontheistic monism, and those that combine features or practices of the two.Sanderson presents the historic classification found in Indian texts,namelyAtimargaof the Shaiva monks andMantramargathat was followed by both the renunciates (sannyasi) and householders (grihastha) in Shaivism.Sub-traditions of Shaivas did not exclusively focus on Shiva, but others such as theDevi(goddess)Shaktism.

Sannyasi Shaiva: Atimarga

The Atimarga branch of Shaivism emphasizes liberation (salvation) – or the end of allDukkha– as the primary goal of spiritual pursuits.It was the path for Shaivaascetics,in contrast to Shaiva householders whose path was described as Mantramarga and who sought both salvation as well as the yogi-siddhi powers and pleasures in life.The Atimarga revered theVedicsources of Shaivism, and sometimes referred to in ancient Indian texts as Raudra (from VedicRudra).

Pashupata Atimargi

Lakulishaat Sangameshvara Temple at Mahakuta, Karnataka (Chalukya,7th century CE). His 5th–10th century ithyphallic statuesare also found in seated yogi position inRajasthan,Uttar Pradeshand elsewhere.

Pashupata:(IAST:Pāśupatas) are the Shaivite sub-tradition with the oldest heritage, as evidenced by Indian texts dated to around the start of the common era.It is a monist tradition, that considers Shiva to be within oneself, in every being and everything observed. The Pashupata path to liberation is one ofasceticismthat is traditionally restricted to Brahmin males.Pashupata theology, according toShiva Sutras,aims for a spiritual state of consciousness where the Pashupata yogi "abides in one's own unfettered nature", where the external rituals feel unnecessary, where every moment and every action becomes an internal vow, a spiritual ritual unto itself.

The Pashupatas derive their Sanskrit name from two words: Pashu (beast) and Pati (lord), where the chaotic and ignorant state, one imprisoned by bondage and assumptions, is conceptualized as the beast,and the Atman (Self, Shiva) that is present eternally everywhere as the Pati.The tradition aims at realizing the state of being one with Shiva within and everywhere. It has extensive literature,and a fivefold path of spiritual practice that starts with external practices, evolving into internal practices and ultimately meditative yoga, with the aim of overcoming all suffering (Dukkha) and reaching the state of bliss (Ananda).

The tradition is attributed to a sage from Gujarat namedLakulisha(~2nd century CE).He is the purported author of thePashupata-sutra,a foundational text of this tradition. Other texts include thebhasya(commentary) onPashupata-sutraby Kaudinya, theGaṇakārikā,Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikāandRāśikara-bhāshya.The Pashupatha monastic path was available to anyone of any age, but it required renunciation from fourAshrama (stage)into the fifth stage ofSiddha-Ashrama.The path started as a life near a Shiva temple and silent meditation, then a stage when the ascetic left the temple and did karma exchange (be cursed by others, but never curse back). He then moved to the third stage of life where he lived like a loner in a cave or abandoned places or Himalayan mountains, and towards the end of his life he moved to a cremation ground, surviving on little, peacefully awaiting his death.

The Pashupatas have been particularly prominent inGujarat,Rajasthan,KashmirandNepal.The community is found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent.In the late medieval era, Pashupatas Shaiva ascetics became extinct.

Lakula Atimargi

This second division of the Atimarga developed from the Pashupatas. Their fundamental text too was the Pashupata Sutras. They differed from Pashupata Atimargi in that they departed radically from the Vedic teachings, respected no Vedic or social customs. He would walk around, for example, almost naked, drank liquor in public, and used a human skull as his begging bowl for food.The Lakula Shaiva ascetic recognized no act nor words as forbidden, he freely did whatever he felt like, much like the classical depiction of his deity Rudra in ancient Hindu texts. However, according to Alexis Sanderson, the Lakula ascetic was strictly celibate and did not engage in sex.

Secondary literature, such as those written by Kashmiri Ksemaraja, suggest that the Lakula had their canons on theology, rituals and literature onpramanas(epistemology). However, their primary texts are believed to be lost, and have not survived into the modern era.

Grihastha and Sannyasi Shaiva: Mantramarga

The horizontal three ash lines (Tripundra) with a red mark on forehead is a revered mark across Shaiva traditions symbolizingOm.

"Mantramārga" (Sanskrit:मन्त्रमार्ग, "the path of mantras" ) has been the Shaiva tradition for both householders and monks.It grew from the Atimarga tradition.This tradition sought not just liberation fromDukkha(suffering, unsatisfactoriness), but special powers (siddhi) and pleasures (bhoga), both in this life and next.Thesiddhiwere particularly the pursuit ofMantramargamonks, and it is this sub-tradition that experimented with a great diversity of rites, deities, rituals, yogic techniques and mantras.Both the Mantramarga and Atimarga are ancient traditions, more ancient than the date of their texts that have survived, according to Sanderson.Mantramārga grew to become a dominant form of Shaivism in this period. It also spread outside of India intoSoutheast Asia'sKhmer Empire,Java,BaliandCham.

The Mantramarga tradition created theShaiva Agamasand Shaiva tantra (technique) texts. This literature presented new forms of ritual, yoga and mantra.This literature was highly influential not just to Shaivism, but to all traditions of Hinduism, as well as to Buddhism and Jainism.Mantramarga had both theistic and monistic themes, which co-evolved and influenced each other. The tantra texts reflect this, where the collection contains both dualistic and non-dualistic theologies. The theism in the tantra texts parallel those found in Vaishnavism and Shaktism.Shaiva Siddhanta is a major subtradition that emphasized dualism during much of its history.

Shaivism has had strong nondualistic (advaita) sub-traditions.Its central premise has been that theAtman(Self) of every being is identical to Shiva, its various practices and pursuits directed at understanding and being one with the Shiva within. This monism is close but differs somewhat from the monism found inAdvaita Vedantaof Adi Shankara. Unlike Shankara's Advaita, Shaivism monist schools considerMayaas Shakti, or energy and creative primordial power that explains and propels the existential diversity.

Srikantha, influenced byRamanuja,formulated ShaivaVishishtadvaita.In this theology, Atman (Self) is not identical withBrahman,but shares with the Supreme all its qualities.Appayya Dikshita(1520–1592), an Advaita scholar, proposed pure monism, and his ideas influenced Shaiva in theKarnatakaregion. His Shaiva Advaita doctrine is inscribed on the walls of Kalakanthesvara temple in Adaiyappalam (Tiruvannamalai district).

Shaiva Siddhanta

Tirumular,the great Tamil Śaivasiddhānta poet and mystic saint (siddha).

TheŚaivasiddhānta( "the established doctrine of Shiva" ) is the earliestsampradaya(tradition, lineage) of Tantric Shaivism, dating from the 5th century.The tradition emphasizes loving devotion to Shiva,uses 5th to 9th-century Tamil hymns calledTirumurai.A key philosophical text of this sub-tradition was composed by 13th-centuryMeykandar.This theology presents three universal realities: thepashu(individual Self), thepati(lord, Shiva), and thepasha(Self's bondage) through ignorance,karmaandmaya.The tradition teaches ethical living, service to the community and through one's work, loving worship, yoga practice and discipline, continuous learning and self-knowledge as means for liberating the individual Self from bondage.

The tradition may have originated in Kashmir where it developed a sophisticated theology propagated by theologians Sadyojoti, Bhatta Nārāyanakantha and his son Bhatta Rāmakantha (c. 950–1000).However, after the arrival of Islamic rulers in north India, it thrived in the south.The philosophy ofShaiva Siddhanta,is particularly popular insouth India,Sri Lanka,MalaysiaandSingapore.

The historic Shaiva Siddhanta literature is an enormous body of texts.The tradition includes both Shiva and Shakti (goddess), but with a growing emphasis on metaphysical abstraction.Unlike the experimenters of Atimarga tradition and other sub-traditions of Mantramarga, states Sanderson, the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition had no ritual offering or consumption of "alcoholic drinks, blood or meat". Their practices focussed on abstract ideas of spirituality,worship and loving devotion to Shiva as SadaShiva, and taught the authority of the Vedas and Shaiva Agamas.This tradition diversified in its ideas over time, with some of its scholars integrating a non-dualistic theology.

Nayanars

Nayanars Shaiva poet-saints are credited withBhakti movementin Shaivism. It included three women saints, such as the 6th-centuryKaraikkal Ammaiyar.

By the 7th century, theNayanars,a tradition of poet-saints in the bhakti tradition developed in ancientTamil Naduwith a focus on Shiva, comparable to that of the Vaisnava Alvars.The devotionalTamilpoems of the Nayanars are divided into eleven collections together known asTirumurai,along with aTamilPuranacalled thePeriya Puranam.The first seven collections are known as theTevaramand are regarded by Tamils as equivalent to theVedas.They were composed in the 7th century bySambandar,Appar,andSundarar.

Tirumular(also spelledTirumūlārorTirumūlar), the author of theTirumantiram(also spelledTirumandiram) is considered by Tattwananda to be the earliest exponent of Shaivism in Tamil areas.Tirumular is dated as 7th or 8th century by Maurice Winternitz.TheTirumantiramis a primary source for the system of Shaiva Siddhanta, being the tenth book of its canon.TheTiruvacakambyManikkavacagaris an important collection of hymns.

Tantra Diksha traditions

The main element of all Shaiva Tantra is the practice ofdiksha,a ceremonial initiation in which divinely revealedmantrasare given to the initiate by aGuru.

A notable feature of some "left tantra" ascetics was their pursuit ofsiddhis(supernatural abilities) andbala(powers), such as averting danger (santih) and the ability to harm enemies (abhicarah).Ganachakras,ritual feasts, would sometimes be held in cemeteries and cremation grounds and featured possession by powerful female deities calledYoginis.The cult of Yoginis aimed to gain special powers through esoteric worship of the Shakti or the feminine aspects of the divine. The groups included sisterhoods that participated in the rites.

Some traditions defined special powers differently. For example, the Kashmiri tantrics explain the powers asanima(awareness than one is present in everything),laghima(lightness, be free from presumed diversity or differences),mahima(heaviness, realize one's limit is beyond one's own consciousness),prapti(attain, be restful and at peace with one's own nature),prakamya(forbearance, grasp and accept cosmic diversity),vasita(control, realize that one always has power to do whatever one wants),isitva(self lordship, a yogi is always free).More broadly, the tantric sub-traditions sought nondual knowledge and enlightening liberation by abandoning all rituals, and with the help of reasoning (yuktih), scriptures (sastras) and the initiating Guru.

Kashmir Shaivism

Main article:Kashmir Shaivism

A 3rd century Nandi statue from Kashmir.

Kashmir Shaivismis an influential tradition within Shaivism that emerged in Kashmir in the 1st millennium CE and thrived in early centuries of the 2nd millennium before the region was overwhelmed by the Islamic invasions from theHindu Kushregion.The Kashmir Shaivism traditions contracted due to Islam except for their preservation byKashmiri Pandits.The tradition experienced arevivalin the 20th century due especially to influence ofSwami Lakshmanjooand his students.

Kashmir Shaivism has been a nondualistic school,and is distinct from the dualistic Shaiva Siddhānta tradition that also existed in medieval Kashmir.A notable philosophy of monistic Kashmiri Shaivism has been thePratyabhijnaideas, particularly those by the 10th century scholarUtpaladevaand 11th centuryAbhinavaguptaandKshemaraja.Their extensive texts established the Shaiva theology and philosophy in anadvaita(monism) framework.TheSiva Sutrasof 9th centuryVasuguptaand his ideas aboutSpandahave also been influential to this and other Shaiva sub-traditions, but it is probable that much older Shaiva texts once existed.

A notable feature of Kashmir Shaivism was its openness and integration of ideas fromShaktism,VaishnavismandVajrayana Buddhism.For example, one sub-tradition of Kashmir Shaivism adopts Goddess worship (Shaktism) by stating that the approach to god Shiva is through goddess Shakti. This tradition combined monistic ideas with tantric practices. Another idea of this school wasTrika,or modal triads of Shakti and cosmology as developed bySomanandain the early 10th century.

Nath

Main article:Nath

Goraknathfounded the Nath Shaiva monastic movement.

Nath:a Shaiva subtradition that emerged from a much older Siddha tradition based onYoga.The Nath consider Shiva as "Adinatha" or the first guru, and it has been a small but notable and influential movement inIndiawhose devotees were called "Yogi" or "Jogi", given their monastic unconventional ways and emphasis on Yoga.

Nath theology integrated philosophy fromAdvaita VedantaandBuddhismtraditions. Their unconventional ways challenged all orthodox premises, exploring dark and shunned practices of society as a means to understanding theology and gaining inner powers. The tradition traces itself to 9th or 10th centuryMatsyendranathand to ideas and organization developed byGorakshanath.They combined both theistic practices such as worshipping goddesses and their historicGurusin temples, as well monistic goals of achieving liberation orjivan-muktiwhile alive, by reaching the perfect (siddha) state of realizing oneness of self and everything with Shiva.

They formed monastic organisations,and some of them metamorphosed into warrior ascetics to resist persecution during the Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent.

Lingayatism

Main article:Lingayatism

A necklace with pendant containing linga symbol of Shiva are worn by Lingayats.

Lingayatism,also known as Veera Shaivism is a distinct Shaivite religious tradition inIndia.It was founded by the 12th-century philosopher and statesmanBasavaand spread by his followers, calledSharanas.

Lingayatism emphasizesqualified monismandbhakti(loving devotion) to Shiva, with philosophical foundations similar to those of the 11th–12th-century South Indian philosopherRamanuja.Its worship is notable for the iconographic form ofIshtalinga,which the adherents wear.Large communities of Lingayats are found in the south Indian state of Karnataka and nearby regions.Lingayatism has its own theological literature with sophisticated theoretical sub-traditions.

They were influential in the HinduVijayanagara Empirethat reversed the territorial gains of Muslim rulers, after the invasions of the Deccan region first byDelhi Sultanateand later other Sultanates. Lingayats consider their scripture to beBasava Purana,which was completed in 1369 during the reign of Vijayanagara rulerBukka Raya I.Lingayat (Veerashaiva) thinkers rejected the custodial hold of Brahmins over theVedasand theshastras,but they did not outright reject the Vedic knowledge.The 13th-century Telugu Virashaiva poetPalkuriki Somanatha,the author of the scripture of Lingayatism, for example asserted, "Virashaivism fully conformed to theVedasand the shastras. "

Demography and Presence of believers

There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.Large Shaivite communities exist in the Southern Indian states ofTamil Nadu,Karnataka,Telangana,KeralaandAndhra Pradeshas well as inJammu & Kashmir,Himachal PradeshandUttrakhand.Substantial communities are also found inHaryana,Maharashtraand centralUttar Pradesh.

Shaivism and Buddhism have co-developed in many regions. Above a syncretic image of Yoni-Linga with four reliefs of theBuddhain a Vajrayana temple.

According to Galvin Flood, Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly.The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddessespolycentrically,with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati, Durga, Radha, Sita and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.

Influence

Shiva is a pan-Hindu god and Shaivism ideas onYogaand as the god of performance arts (Nataraja) have been influential on all traditions of Hinduism.

Shaivism was highly influential in southeast Asia from the late 6th century onwards, particularly the Khmer and Cham kingdoms of Indochina, and across the major islands of Indonesia such as Sumatra, Java and Bali.This influence on classicalCambodia,VietnamandThailandcontinued when Mahayana Buddhism arrived with the same Indians.

In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has beenBhattara Guru,which is derived from SanskritBhattarakawhich means "noble lord".He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of allGurusin Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent.However, the Bhattara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Bhattara Guru's wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others.Shiva has been called Sadasiva, Paramasiva, Mahadeva in benevolent forms, and Kala, Bhairava, Mahakala in his fierce forms.The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).

AsBhakti movementideas spread in South India, Shaivite devotionalism became a potent movement inKarnatakaandTamil Nadu.Shaivism was adopted by several ruling Hindu dynasties as the state religion (though other Hindu traditions, Buddhism and Jainism continued in parallel), including theChola,Nayaks(lingayats)and theRajputs.A similar trend was witnessed in early medieval Indonesia with theMajapahitempire and pre-IslamicMalaya.In the Himalayan Hindu kingdom of Nepal, Shaivism remained a popular form of Hinduism and co-evolved with Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.

A seatedArdhanarishvarasymbolically presenting the feminine Shakti as inseparable part of masculine Shiva.

Shaktism

The goddess tradition of Hinduism calledShaktismis closely related to Shaivism. In many regions of India, not only did the ideas of Shaivism influence the evolution of Shaktism, but Shaivism also itself was influenced by it and progressively subsumed the reverence for the divine feminine (Devi) as an equal and essential partner of divine masculine (Shiva).The goddess Shakti in eastern states of India is considered the inseparable partner of God Shiva. According to Galvin Flood, the closeness between Shaivism and Shaktism traditions is such that these traditions of Hinduism are at times difficult to separate.Some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples.

Smarta Tradition

Shiva is a part of theSmarta Tradition,sometimes referred to as Smartism, another tradition of Hinduism.The Smarta Hindus are associated with theAdvaita Vedantatheology, and their practices include an interim step that incorporates simultaneous reverence for five deities, which includes Shiva along with Vishnu, Surya, Devi and Ganesha. This is called thePanchayatana puja.The Smartas thus accept the primary deity of Shaivism as a means to their spiritual goals.

Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are icons ofsagunaBrahman,a means to realizing the abstract Ultimate Reality called nirguna Brahman. The five or six icons are seen bySmartasas multiple representations of the oneSaguna Brahman(i.e., a personal God with form), rather than as distinct beings.The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, then follow a philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman (Self) and Brahman (metaphysical Ultimate Reality) – as "That art Thou".

Panchayatana puja that incorporates Shiva became popular in medieval India and is attributed to 8th centuryAdi Shankara,but archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth of Adi Shankara. Many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from theGupta Empireperiod, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers fromAjmer) has been dated to belong to theKushan Empireera (pre-300 CE).According to James Harle, major Hindu temples from 1st millennium CE commonly embedded thepancayatanaarchitecture, fromOdishatoKarnatakatoKashmir.Large temples often present multiple deities in the same temple complex, while some explicitly include dual representations of deities such asHarihara(half Shiva, half Vishnu).

Vaishnavism

Shaivism iconography inCambodia,atKbal Speanriver site. As in India, the site also co-features Vaishnavism-related iconography.

Vaishnava texts reverentially mention Shiva. For example, theVishnu Puranaprimarily focuses on the theology of Hindu godVishnuand hisavatarssuch asKrishna,but it praisesBrahmaand Shiva and asserts that they are one with Vishnu.The Vishnu Sahasranama in theMahabharatalist a thousand attributes and epithets of Vishnu. The list identifies Shiva with Vishnu.

Reverential inclusion of Shaiva ideas and iconography are very common in major Vaishnava temples, such as Dakshinamurti symbolism of Shaiva thought is often enshrined on the southern wall of the main temple of major Vaishnava temples in peninsular India.Hariharatemples in and outside the Indian subcontinent have historically combined Shiva and Vishnu, such as at the Lingaraj Mahaprabhu temple in Bhubaneshwar, Odisha. According to Julius Lipner, Vaishnavism traditions such asSri Vaishnavismembrace Shiva, Ganesha and others, not as distinct deities of polytheism, but as polymorphic manifestation of the same supreme divine principle, providing the devotee a polycentric access to the spiritual.

Similarly, Shaiva traditions have reverentially embraced other gods and goddesses as manifestation of the same divine.TheSkanda Purana,for example in section 6.254.100 states, "He who is Shiva is Vishnu, he who is Vishnu is Sadashiva."

Sauraism (Sun deity)

The sun god calledSuryais an ancient deity of Hinduism, and several ancient Hindu kingdoms particularly in the northwest and eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent revered Surya. These devotees called Sauras once had a large corpus of theological texts, and Shaivism literature reverentially acknowledges these.For example, the Shaiva textSrikanthiyasamhitamentions 85 Saura texts, almost all of which are believed to have been lost during the Islamic invasion and rule period, except for large excerpts found embedded in Shaiva manuscripts discovered in the Himalayan mountains. Shaivism incorporated Saura ideas, and the surviving Saura manuscripts such asSaurasamhitaacknowledge the influence of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, assigning "itself to the canon of Shaiva textVathula-Kalottara.

Yoga movements

Many Shaiva temples present Shiva in yoga pose.

Yoga and meditation have been an integral part of Shaivism, and it has been a major innovator of techniques such as those of Hatha Yoga.Many major Shiva temples and Shaivatritha(pilgrimage) centers, as well as Shaiva texts, depict anthropomorphic iconography of Shiva as a giant statue wherein Shiva is a lone yogi meditating.

In several Shaiva traditions such as the Kashmir Shaivism, anyone who seeks personal understanding and spiritual growth has been called aYogi.TheShivaSutras(aphorisms) of Shaivism teach yoga in many forms. According toMark Dyczkowski,yoga – which literally means "union" – to this tradition has meant the "realisation of our true inherent nature which is inherently greater than our thoughts can ever conceive", and that the goal of yoga is to be the "free, eternal, blissful, perfect, infinite spiritually conscious" one is.

Many Yoga-emphasizing Shaiva traditions emerged in medieval India, who refined yoga methods in ways such as introducingHatha Yogatechniques. One such movement had been theNathYogis, a Shaivism sub-tradition that integrated philosophy fromAdvaita VedantaandBuddhismtraditions. It was founded byMatsyendranathand further developed byGorakshanath.The texts of these Yoga emphasizing Hindu traditions present their ideas in Shaiva context.

Dancing Shiva Nataraja at the 6th century Badami cave temples.

Hindu performance arts

Shiva is the lord of dance and dramatic arts in Hinduism.This is celebrated in Shaiva temples asNataraja,which typically shows Shiva dancing in one of the poses in the ancient Hindu text on performance arts called theNatya Shastra.

Dancing Shiva as a metaphor for celebrating life and arts is very common in ancient and medieval Hindu temples. For example, it is found inBadami cave temples,Ellora Caves,Khajuraho,Chidambaramand others. The Shaiva link to the performance arts is celebrated inIndian classical dancessuch asBharatanatyamandChhau.

Buddhism

Buddhism and Shaivism have interacted and influenced each other since ancient times in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia. Their Siddhas and esoteric traditions, in particular, have overlapped to an extent where Buddhists and Hindus worshipped in the same temple such as in theSeto Machindranath.In southeast Asia, the two traditions were not presented in competitive or polemical terms, rather as two alternate paths that lead to the same goals of liberation, with theologians disagreeing which of these is faster and simpler.Scholars disagree whether a syncretic tradition emerged from Buddhism and Shaivism, or it was a coalition with free borrowing of ideas, but they agree that the two traditions co-existed peacefully.

The earliest evidence of a close relationship between Shaivism and Buddhism comes from the archaeological sites and damaged sculptures from the northwest Indian subcontinent, such as Gandhara. These are dated to about the 1st-century CE, with Shiva depicted in Buddhist arts.The Buddhist Avalokiteshvara is linked to Shiva in many of these arts,but in others Shiva is linked to Bodhisattva Maitreya with he shown as carrying his own water pot like Vedic priests.According to Richard Blurton, the ancient works show that the Bodhisattva of Compassion in Buddhism has many features in common with Shiva in Shaivism.The Shaiva Hindu and Buddhist syncretism continues in the contemporary era in the island of Bali, Indonesia.In Central Asian Buddhism, and its historic arts, syncretism and a shared expression of Shaivism, Buddhism and Tantra themes has been common. This is evdient in theKizil CavesinXin gian g,where there are numerous caves that depict Shiva in the buddhist shrines through wall paintings

Paintings of Shiva and Parvati inKizil Caves,Xin gian g,China. The two are at the bottom right of the bottom image

The syncretism between Buddhism and Shaivism was particularly marked in southeast Asia, but this was not unique, rather it was a common phenomenon also observed in the eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent, the south and the Himalayan regions.This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.In the pre-Islamic Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not identical religions.This idea is also found in the sculptures and temples in the eastern states of India and the Himalayan region. For example, Hindu temples in these regions showHarihara(half Shiva, half Vishnu) flanked by a standingBuddhaon its right and a standingSurya(Hindu Sun god) on left.

On major festivals of Bali Hindus, such as theNyepi– a "festival of silence", the observations are officiated by both Buddhist and Shaiva priests.

Jainism

Jainism co-existed with Shaiva culture since ancient times, particularly in western and southern India where it received royal support from Hindu kings of the Chaulukya, Ganga and Rashtrakuta dynasties.In late 1st millennium CE, Jainism too developed a Shaiva-like tantric ritual culture with Mantra-goddesses.These Jain rituals were aimed at mundane benefits usingjapas(mantra recitation) and making offerings intoHomafire.

According to Alexis Sanderson, the link and development of Shaiva goddesses into Jaina goddess is more transparent than a similar connection between Shaivism and Buddhism.The 11th-century Jain textBhairavapadmavatikalpa,for example, equates Padmavati of Jainism with Tripura-bhairavi of Shaivism and Shaktism. Among the major goddesses of Jainism that are rooted in Hindu pantheon, particularly Shaiva, include Lakshmi and Vagishvari (Sarasvati) of the higher world in Jain cosmology, Vidyadevis of the middle world, and Yakshis such as Ambika, Cakreshvari, Padmavati and Jvalamalini of the lower world according to Jainism.

Shaiva-Shakti iconography is found in major Jain temples. For example, the Osian temple of Jainism near Jodhpur features Chamunda, Durga, Sitala, and a naked Bhairava.While Shaiva and Jain practices had considerable overlap, the interaction between the Jain community and Shaiva community differed on the acceptance of ritual animal sacrifices before goddesses. Jain remained strictly vegetarian and avoided animal sacrifice, while Shaiva accepted the practice.

Temples and pilgrimage

Somnath

Srisailam

Ujjain

Omkareshwar

Parli

Deoghar

Bhima

Rameshwaram

Dwaraka

Jageshwar

Kathmandu

Aundha

Triambak

Kedarnath

Ellora

Sivasagar

Varanasi

Badrinath

Puri

Khajuraho

Chidambaram

Bhairavanath

Taraknath

Amarnath

Chandranath

Kailash

Katas Raj

Naguleswaram

Ketheeswaram

Koneswaram

Munneswaram

Tondeswaram

class=notpageimage|

Red markers denote important Shaiva temples in the mainland Indian subcontinent.
Orange markers denote UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Green markers represent the ancient Pancha Ishwarams of Sri Lanka.

Shaiva Puranas, Agamas and other regional literature refer to temples by various terms such asMandir,Shivayatana,Shivalaya,Shambhunatha,Jyotirlingam,Shristhala,Chattraka,Bhavaggana,Bhuvaneshvara,Goputika,Harayatana,Kailasha,Mahadevagriha,Saudhalaand others.In Southeast Asia Shaiva temples are calledCandi(Java),Pura(Bali),andWat(Cambodiaand nearby regions).

Many of the Shiva-related pilgrimage sites such as Varanasi, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Somnath, and others are broadly considered holy in Hinduism. They are calledkṣétra(Sanskrit: क्षेत्र). Akṣétrahas many temples, including one or more major ones. These temples and its location attracts pilgrimage called tirtha (or tirthayatra).

Many of the historicPuranasliterature embed tourism guide to Shaivism-related pilgrimage centers and temples.For example, theSkanda Puranadeals primarily withTirtha Mahatmyas(pilgrimage travel guides) to numerous geographical points,but also includes a chapter stating that a temple andtirthais ultimately a state of mind and virtuous everyday life.

Major rivers of the Indian subcontinent and their confluence (sangam), natural springs, origin of Ganges River (andpancha-ganga), along with high mountains such as Kailasha with Mansovar Lake are particularly revered spots in Shaivism.Twelvejyotirlingasites across India have been particularly important pilgrimage sites in Shaivism representing the radiant light (jyoti) of infiniteness,as perŚiva Mahāpurāṇa.They areSomnatha,Mallikarjuna,Mahakaleshwar,Omkareshwar,Kedarnatha,Bhimashankar,Visheshvara,Trayambakesvara,Vaidyanatha,Nageshvara,RameshvaraandGrishneshwar.Other texts mention five Kedras (Kedarnatha, Tunganatha, Rudranatha, Madhyamesvara and Kalpeshvara), five Badri (Badrinatha, Pandukeshvara, Sujnanien, Anni matha and Urghava), snow lingam of Amarnatha, flame of Jwalamukhi, all of the Narmada River, and others.Kashi (Varanasi) is declared as particularly special in numerous Shaiva texts and Upanishads, as well as in the pan-HinduSannyasa Upanishadssuch as theJabala Upanishad.

The earlyBhakti movementpoets of Shaivism composed poems about pilgrimage and temples, using these sites as metaphors for internal spiritual journey.

See also

• Chaturdasa Devata
• Hindu denominations
• History of Shaivism
• Jangam Lingayat
• Shaiva Siddhanta
• Kashmiri Shaivism

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External links

• Encyclopædia Britannica,"Shaivism"
• Saivism.Net
• Alexis sanderson,Publications,scholarly studies in Shaivism